
Class. 



I - *__ 



Book ^3_5I 



GspghtM?_ 



5 i 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



Handbook on sanitation. 

A MANUAL OF THEORETICAL AND 
PRACTICAL SANITATION. 



FOR STUDENTS AND PHYSICIANS; FOR HEALTH, SANI- 
TARY, TENEMENT-HOUSE, PLUMBING, FACTORY, 
FOOD, AND OTHER INSPECTORS; AS WELL AS 
FOR CANDIDATES FOR ALL MUNICIPAL 
SANITARY POSITIONS. 



BY 

GEORGE M. PRICE, M.D., 

Medical Sanitary Inspector, Department of Health, New York City ; 
Inspector Neiv York Sanitary Aid Society of the 10th Ward, 1885; 
Manager Model Tenement-houses of the Neiv York Tenement- 
house Building Company, 1888 ; Inspector Neiv York 
State Tenement-house Commission, 1895. 



FIRST EDITION. 

FIRST THOUSAND- 



NEW YORK: 

JOHN WILEY & SONS. 

lmim\ CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited. 

1901. 



r 






THE LIBRARY OF 
CONGRESS, 

Two Copies Received 

OCT. 16 1901 

COPVRIOHT ENTRY 

Pet /o~l<jol 

CLASS tf^XXa No. 

/ o /° 

COPY 8. 



Copyright, 1901, 

BY 

GEORGE M, PRICE. 



ROBERT DRyMMOND, PRINTER, NEW YORK. 



TO 

JACOB A. KIIS, 

To whose profound knowledge of "How the Other Half Lives/' deep 
feeling for the " Children of the Poor," and strenuous efforts in behalf 
of the tenement-house population of New York, a great many sanitary 
improvements and progress in -tenement-house reform are due t 

this book is dedicated in appreciation and respect 

By the Author. 



PREFACE. 



In this era of intense interest in all matters relating 
to public health and practical sanitation, no defence 
is needed for the presentation of a new book on the sub- 
ject, especially as the book presents the matter in a 
form hitherto unexploited. 

Municipal Sanitation has made giant strides within 
the last decade; and the circle of those whose duties 
compel them to make a special study of sanitary ques- 
tions has been considerably widened within the last few 
years. 

The number of inspectors in the various municipal 
health, building, sanitary, and other similar depart- 
ments, is already quite large, and the tendency is to a 
further augmentation of their number. 

Moreover, the time when inexperienced men could 
be 'appointed as Sanitary and Health Inspectors has 
passed, and certain quite important and strict qualifica- 
tions are required of the candidates for one of these mu- 
nicipal positions. These requirements and qualifica- 
tions for sanitary positions are constantly being made 
more strict and thorough; and there is no doubt that 
Surgeon-General W. Wyman is right in saying: " In 
the sanitary progress of the new century, it has occurred 



vi PBEFACE. 

to me, there must be developed a new class of individ- 
uals in sanitary affairs." (Journal Am. Med. Asso., 
March, 1901.) 

There are several thousand inspectors in the various 
sanitary municipal departments throughout the United 
States, and this number is being increased every year. 
New York City alone has added over 200 inspectors in 
its newly-established Tenement-house Department, 
which is to begin its existence January, 1902. 

In spite, however, of the growing number of sanitary 
inspectors, the still greater number of candidates for in- 
spectorships, and the general interest in sanitary ques- 
tions, there are as yet very few sources where the de- 
sired and necessary knowledge may be gained. In Eng- 
land there is an extensive literature on the subject; 
there are dozens of special books on Sanitation, a large 
number of practical manuals, and a number of aids, 
helps, and handbooks on all sanitary subjects. Here 
in the United States one has to consult the sev- 
eral bulky text-books on hygiene intended for medical 
men only. Except for Dr. R. S. Tracy's little book on 
" Sanitary Information," and Mr. P. Gerhardt's popular 
books on plumbing, there are no books 'from which the 
municipal sanitary inspector, and especially the candi- 
date for such a position, can learn what is necessary for 
him to know. 

These were the considerations which have induced me 
to undertake the present work. While I do not pretend 
to have written a text-book on the subject of Sanitation, 
I hope to have succeeded in presenting the subject in a 
condensed and practical form, so as to enable the stu- 



PREFACE. vii 

dent and candidate to make a creditable showing in the 
civil-service competitive examinations, as well as sub- 
sequently to fill one of the sanitary positions. 

The first step in the study of Sanitation is to under- 
stand the principles of the science. In Part L, on Sani- 
tary Science, I have endeavored to give a condensed but 
comprehensive resume of the best text-books on the 
subject. 

Part II. is on Sanitary Practice, upon which very lit- 
tle has hitherto been written from a practical stand- 
point. In this part are given the methods of applica- 
tion of sanitary science in the various municipal de- 
partments, with extracts from the laws, rules, and reg- 
ulations of New York and other municipalities. 

Part III. of the book relates to the inspector himself, 
his duties, the art of his profession, his standing, quali- 
fications, etc.; this part also contains some useful hints 
which will doubtless aid him, as they will the candidate 
for an inspectorship. 

Part IV. contains, besides the chapters on Sanitary 
Law and Sanitary Organization in the United States, ex- 
tracts from model laws on the various branches of Sani- 
tation. 

It is right here to.mention that f orall information as 
to the laws and practice of Sanitation- outside of New 
York, I am indebted to the new book' on " Municipal 
Sanitation in the United States/' by Dr. Chas. V. 
Chapin, for the publication of which all interested in 
Sanitation will be thankful. 

I cannot close these few remarks on the scope of the 
book without publicly acknowledging my deep gratitude 



viii PREFACE. 

to, and appreciation of, the assistance of those who 
have, in one way or another, kindly helped me in the 
preparation of this work. 

To the eminent sanitarian, Dr. Roger Sherman 
Tracy, I herein render my deep regard for the advice 
and valuable suggestions given me. My heartfelt 
thanks are due to my friend, Dr. Walter Brooks 
Brouner, for the laborious task of revising the manu- 
script of the book. Thanks are also due to Mr. H. 
Bramley and Dr. Michael B. Feeney, Chief Sanitary 
Inspector of the Health Department of New York City, 
for kindness and assistance in various ways. 

Finally, I must ask the forbearance of readers for 
any and all inaccuracies and errors that may be found in 
my book, promising to correct these in any future edi- 
tions of the work, if such are called for. 



247 East Broadway, New York City, 
October, 1901. 



CONTENTS. 



PART FIRST.— SANITARY SCIENCE. 

CHAPTER PAGE 

I. Soil and Sites. 

Definition, Composition, Solids, Ground- water, Ground- 
air, Ground-moisture, Ground -temperature, Bacteria Con- 
tamination of the Soil, Influence of Soil on Health, Diseases 
due to Soil, Sites, Prevention of the Bad Effects of the 
Soil on Health, The Proper Construction of a House, Sub- 
soil Drainage * 1 

II. Air. 

Composition, Humidity, Pressure, Temperature, Impuri- 
ties in Air, Impurities According to their Source, Influence 
of Air on Health, Diseases Due to Impure Air 13 

III. Ventilation. 

Definition, Quantity of Air Required, Agents of Ventila- 
tion, Methods of Ventilation, Natural Ventilation, Artificial 
Ventilation 19 

IV. Warming. 

Ventilation and Heating, Need of Heating, The Three 
Methods of Heating, Materials of Combustion, Chimneys, 
Smoky Chimneys, Open Fire-places and Grates, Stoves, 
Hot-air Warming, Hot-water System, Steam Heating.. » . . . 31 

V Water. 

Composition, Quantity Required, Characteristics and 
Quality of Water, Source, Impurities, Pollution, Influence 
on Health, Diseases Due to Impure Water 40 

VI. Water-supply. 

Sources, Rain-water, Surface, Subsurface, Storage, Col- 
lection and Distribution, Purification 44 

ix 



x CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER PAGE 

VII. Disposal op Sewage. 

Waste Products, Sewage, Modes of Ultimate Disposal, 
Immediate Disposal, Sewage Disposal in the United States, 
The Dry Methods, The Water-carriage System, The 
Separate and the Combined 49 

VIII. Seweks. 

Definitions, Materials, Construction, Joints, Fall, Flow, 
Size, Connections, Tide-valves, House-sewer, Sewer-air and 
Gas, Ventilation . 59 

IX. Plumbing. General Principles. 

Purposes and Kequisites, Definitions, Materials Em- 
ployed, Joints and Connections, Traps, Causes of Loss of 

Seal 66 

X. Plumbing Pipes. 

The House-drain, The Soil- and Waste-pipes, Branch 
Soil- and Waste-pipes, Vent-pipes, Rain-leaders 79 

XI. Plumbing Fixtures. 

Sinks, Wash-basins, Wash-tubs, Bath-tubs, Refrigera- 
tors, Boilers, Urinals, Overflows, Safes and Wastes, Water- 
closets, Yard and Area Drains 90 

XII. Defects in Plumbing ; Examination and Tests. 

Defects, Minor Tests, Hydraulic Test, Smoke Test, Scent 
Test 104 

PART SECOND.— SANITARY PRACTICE. 

I. The Tenement-house Problem Ill 

II. Tenement-houses 117 

III. Private Dwellings 134 

IV. Lodging-houses 136 

V. Sweat-shops 138 

VI. Workshops and Factories 141 

VII. Mercantile Establishments 145 

VIII. The Smoke Nuisance 146 

IX. Bakeries 148 

X. Stables 151 

XI. Slaughter-houses 1 54 

XII. Offensive Trades ■......- 156 



CONTENTS. xi 

CHAPTER PAGE 

XIII. Food 158 

XIV Meat 160 

XV. Milk and Milk-inspection 164 

XVI. Infectious Diseases 169 

XVII. Disinfection and Disinfectants 174 

XVIII. School Inspection 176 



PART THIRD.-SANITARY INSPECTION. 

I. Sanitation as a Profession 178 

II. Qualifications for and Art of Inspection 186 

III. Tenement-house Inspection 189 

IV. Sanitary Inspectors in the United States 193 

V. Civil-service Examinations 200 

VL Notes of a Complete Tenement- house Inspection . . 205 

VII. Example of a Complaint and Report 208 

VIII. Calculation of Areas and Cubic Space 212 

IX. Useful Memoranda and Tables 217 

PART FOURTH. -SANITARY LAW. 

I. Sanitary Law 221 

II. Sanitary Organization in the United States 224 

III. The Tenement-house Law 227 

IV. The Tenement-house Department of New York 

City 259 

V Plumbing Regulations 271 

VI On Disinfection and Disinfectants 288 

VII The Duties of Milk Inspectors 298 

VIII. On School Inspection.. 304 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



PAGE 

1. Concrete Foundation and Damp-proof Course. 

(From Taylor's " Sanitary Inspectors^ Handbook.") 11 

2. Subsoil Drain-pipes 11 

3. Hinkes Bird Window. (Taylor.) ... 24 

4. Ellison's Bricks. (From Knight's Diagrammettes.) 25 

5. Sherringham Valve. (Taylor.) 26 

6. Tobin's Tubes. (Knight.) 26 

7. McKinnell's Ventilator. (Taylor.) 27 

8. Sunburner. (Knight.) 28 

9. Cowl Ventilators. (Knight. ) 29 

10. Air-propeller 30 

11. G alton Grate. (From Tracy's "Sanitary Information.") 36 

12. Hot-air Furnace 37 

13. Brick Sewer 60 

14. Nomenclature of Traps. (Knight.) . . 71 

14 ) 

. * J. Pipes: Forms, Lengths, and Connections 71, 72 

15. S 

15. Rain-leader 73 

17. Traps 76, 77, 79 

17. System of House Drainage. (Drawn by Harry Bramley.) 82 
19 Pan Water-closet 94 

20. Long Hopper 95 

21. Short Hopper 96 

22. Washout Water-closet 97 

23. Washdown Water-closet 97 

24. Flushing-cistern 98 

25. School Sink. 99 

26. J. Sullivan's Improved Yard Hopper Closets 101 

27. A Modern Water-closet 102 

28. Types of Tenement-houses 118 

29. A Typical Slaughter-house 155 

30. Lactometer 165 

xii 



HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 



PART FIRST. 

SANITARY SCIENCE. 



CHAPTEE I. 
SOIL AND SITES. 

Definition. — By the term " soil " we mean the super- 
ficial layer of the earth, a result of the geological disin- 
tegration of the primitive rock by the action of the 
elements upon it. 

Composition. — Soil consists oi. solids, waiter, and 
air. 

Solids. — The solid constituents of the soil are inor- 
ganic and organic in character. 

The inorganic constituents are the various minerals 
and elements found alone or in combination in the 
earth, such as silica, aluminum, calcium, iron, carbon, 
sodium, chlorine, potassium, etc. 

The characteristics of the soil depend upon its con- 
stituents, and upon the predominance of one or the 
other of its composing elements. The nature of the 
soil also depends upon its physical properties. When 



2 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION 

the disintegrated rock consists of quite large particles, 
the soil is called a gravel soil. A sandy soil is one in 
which the particles are very small. Sandstone is con- 
solidated sand. Clay is soil consisting principally of 
aluminum silicate; in chalk soft calcium carbonate pre- 
dominates. 

The organic constituents of the soil are the result of 
vegetable and animal growth and decomposition in the 
soil. 

Groundwater. — Ground-water is that continuous 
body or sheet of water formed by the complete filling 
and saturation of the soil to a certain level by rain- 
water; it is that stratum of subterranean lakes and 
rivers filled up with alluvium which we reach at a 
higher or lower level when we dig wells. 

The level of the ground-water depends upon the un- 
derlying strata, and also upon the movements of the 
subterranean water-bed. The relative position of the 
impermeable underlying strata varies in its distance 
from the surface-soil. In marshy land the ground-wa- 
ter is at the surface; in other places it can be reached 
only by deep borings. The source of the ground-water 
is the rainfall, part of which drains into the porous soil 
until it reaches an impermeable stratum, where it col- 
lects. 

The movements of the ground-water are in two direc- 
tions — horizontal and vertical. The horizontal or lat- 
eral movement is toward the seas and adjacent water- 
courses, and is determined by hydrostatic laws and top- 
ographical relations. The vertical motion of the 
ground-water is to and from the surface, and is due to 



SOIL AND SITES. 3 

the amount of rainfall, the pressure of tides, and 
watercourses into which the ground-water drains. The 
vertical variations of the ground-water determine the 
distance of its surface-level from the soil-surface, and 
are divided into a persistently low-water level, about 
15 feet from the surface; a persistently high- water 
level, about 5 feet from the surface, and a fluctuating 
level, sometimes high, sometimes low. 

Ground-air. — Except in the hardest granite rocks 
and in soil completely filled with water, the interstices 
of the soil are filled with a continuation of atmospheric 
air, the amount depending on the degree of porosity of 
the soil. The nature of the ground-air differs from that 
of the atmosphere only as it is influenced by its loca- 
tion. The principal constituents of the air — nitrogen, 
oxygen, and carbonic acid — are also found in the 
ground-air, but in the latter the relative quantities of 
each are different. 

AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF ATMOSPHERIC AIR IN 100 
VOLUMES. 

Nitrogen ,79.00% 

Oxygen 20.96% 

Carbonic acid 0.04% 

AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF GROUND-AIR. 

Nitrogen 79.00% 

Oxygen 10.35% 

Carbonic acid 9.74% 

Of course these quantities are not constant, but vary 
in different soils, and at different depths, times, etc. 
The greater quantity of CO ? in ground-air is due to 



4 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

the processes of oxidation and decomposition taking 
place in the soil. Ground-air also contains a large 
quantity of bacterial and other organic and gaseous 
matter found in the soil. 

Ground-air is in constant motion, its movements de- 
pending upon a great many factors, some among these 
being the winds and movements of the atmospheric air; 
the temperature of the soil; the surface temperature; 
the pressure from the ground-water from below, and 
surface- and rain-water from above, etc. 

Ground- moisture. — The interstices of the soil above 
the ground-water level are filled with air only, when 
the soil is absolutely dry; but as such a soil is very rare, 
all soils being more or less damp, soil usually contains 
a mixture of air and water, or what is called ground- 
moisture. 

Ground-moisture is derived partly from the evapora- 
tion of the ground-water and its capillary absorption 
by the surface-soil, and partly by the retention of wa- 
ter from rains upon the surface. The power of the 
soil to absorb and retain moisture varies according to 
the physical and chemical, as well as the thermal, prop- 
erties of the soil. 

Loose sand may hold about 2 gallons of water per 
cubic foot; granite takes up about 4% of moisture; 
chalk about 15%; clay about 20%; sandy loam 33 to 
35%; humus about 40%. 

Ground-temperature. — The temperature of the soil 
is due to the direct rays of the sun, the physico-chemical 
changes in its interior, and to the internal heat of the 
earth. 



SOIL AND SITES. 5 

The ground-temperature varies according to the an- 
nual and diurnal changes of the external temperature; 
also according to the character of the soil, its color, 
composition, depth, degree of organic oxidation, ground- 
water level, and degree of dampness. In hot weather 
the surface-soil is cooler, and the subsurface-soil still 
more so, than the surrounding air; in cold weather the 
opposite is the case. The contact of the cool soil w r ith 
the warm surface-air on summer evenings is what pro- 
duces the condensation of air-moisture which we call 
dew. 

Bacteria. — Quite a large number of bacteria are 
found in the soil, especially near the surface, where 
chemical and organic changes are most active. From 
200,000 to 1,000,000 bacteria have been found in one 
c.c. of earth. The ground bacteria are divided into two 
groups — saprophytic and pathogenic. The saprophytic 
bacteria are the bacteria of decay, putrefaction, and 
fermentation. It is to their benevolent action that 
vegetable and animal debris is decomposed, oxidized, 
and reduced to its elements. To these bacteria the soil 
owes its self -purifying capacity and the faculty of dis- 
integrating animal and vegetable debris. 

The pathogenic bacteria are either those formed dur- 
ing the process of organic decay, and which, introduced 
into the human system, are capable of producing va- 
rious diseases, or those which become lodged in the soil 
through the contamination of the latter by ground- 
water and air, and which find in the soil a favorable 
culture-medium, until forced out of the soil by the 
movements of the ground-water and air. 



6 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION 

Contamination of the Soil. — The natural capacity 
of the soil to decompose and reduce organic matter is 
sometimes taxed to its utmost by the introduction into 
the soil of extraneous matters in quantities which the 
soil is unable to oxidize in a given period. This is 
called contamination or pollution of soil, and is due : 

1) to surface pollution by refuse, garbage, animal, 
and human excreta; 

2) to interment of dead bodies of beasts and men; 

3) to the introduction of foreign deleterious gases, 
etc. 

Pollution by Surface Refuse and Sewage. — This oc- 
curs where a large number of people congregate, as in 
cities, towns, etc., and very seriously contaminates the 
ground by the surcharge of the surface-soil with sewage 
matter, saturating the ground with it, polluting the 
ground-water from which the drinking-water is de- 
rived, and increasing the putrefactive changes taking 
place in the soil. Here the pathogenic bacteria abound, 
and, by multiplying, exert a very marked influence upon 
the health, and cause the various infectious diseases. 
Sewage pollution of the soils and of the source of water- 
supply is a matter of grave importance, and is one of 
the chief factors of high mortality in cities and towns. 

Interment of Bodies. — The second cause of soil 
contamination is also of great importance. Owing to 
the intense physico-chemical and organic changes tak- 
ing place within the soil, all dead-animal matter in- 
terred therein is easily disposed of in a certain time, 
being reduced to more or less common elements, viz., 
ammonia ; nitrous acid, carbonic acid, sulphuretted and 



SOIL AND SITES. 7 

carburetted hydrogen^ etc. But whenever the number 
of interred bodies is too great, and the products of de- 
composition are allowed to accumulate to a very great 
degree, until the capacity of the soil to absorb and oxid- 
ize them is overtaxed, the soil, and the air and water 
therein, are polluted by the noxious poisons produced 
by the processes of decomposition. 

Introduction of Various Foreign Materials and 
Gases. — In cities and towns various pipes are laid in 
the ground for conducting certain substances, as illu- 
minating gas, fuel coal-gas, etc. ; the pipes at times are 
defective, allowing leakage therefrom, and permitting 
the saturation of the soil with poisonous gases which 
are frequently drawn up by the various currents of 
ground-air into the open air and adjacent dwellings. 

Influence of the Soil on Health. — The intimate rela- 
tions existing between the soil upon which we live and 
our health, and the marked influence of the soil on the 
life and well-being of man, have been recognized from 
time immemorial. 

The influence of the soil upon health is due to : 

1) the physical and chemical character of the soil; 

2) the ground-water level and degree of dampness; 

3) the organic impurities and contamination of the 
soil. 

The physical and chemical nature of the soil, irre- 
spective of its water, moisture, and air, has been found 
to produce a certain marked effect on the health, 
growth, and constitution of man. The peculiar disease 
called cretinism, as well as goitre, has been traced 
directly to a certain chemical composition of the soil. 



8 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION 

The ground-water level is of. great importance to the 
well-being of man. It has been definitely ascertained 
that a persistently low-water level (about 15 feet from 
the surface) is healthy, the mortality being the lowest 
in such places ; a persistently high ground-water level 
(about 5 feet from the surface) is unhealthy; and a 
fluctuating level, varying from high to low, is the most 
unhealthy, and is dangerous to life and health. Malaria 
and other paroxysmal fevers, tuberculosis, rheumatism, 
neuralgias, etc., were traced directly to a high-water 
level and marshy ground. 

A damp soil, viz., a soil wherein the ground-moisture 
is very great and persistent, has been found inimical 
to the health of the inhabitants, favoring the de- 
velopment of various diseases by the direct effect of the 
dampness itself, and by the greater proneness of damp 
ground to become contaminated with various patho- 
genic bacteria and organisms which may be drawn into 
the dwellings by the movements of the ground-air. As 
a rule there is very little to hinder the ground-air from 
penetrating the dwellings of man, air being drawn in 
through cellars by changes in temperature, and by the 
artificial heating of houses. 

The organic impurities and bacteria found in the soil 
are especially abundant in large cities, and are a great 
cause of the evil influence of soil upon health. The im- 
purities are allowed to drain into the ground, to pollute 
the ground-water and the source of water-supply, and to 
poison the ground-air, loading it with bacteria and 
products of putrefaction, thus playing havoc with the 
health of human beings, 



SOIL AND SITES. 9 

Diseases due to Soil. — A great many diseases have 
been traced directly or indirectly to the influence of the 
soil. The manner in which these diseases are contracted 
has not been as yet clearly proven in all cases. The 
following diseases have been mentioned as traceable to 
soil influences : Malaria, Paroxysmal Fevers, Tubercu- 
losis, Neuralgias, Cholera, Yellow Fever, Bubonic 
Plague, Typhoid, Dysentery, Goitre and Cretinism, Te- 
tanus, Anthrax, Malignant (Edema, Septicaemia, etc. 

Sites. — From what we have already learned about the 
soil, it is evident that it is a matter of great importance 
as to where a site for a human habitation is selected, 
for upon the proper selection of the site depends the 
health, well-being, and longevity of the inhabitants. 
The requisite characteristics of a healthy ^ite for dwell- 
ings are: A dry, porous, permeable soil; a low and 
non-fluctuating ground-water level, and a soil retaining 
very little dampness, free from organic impurities, and 
the ground-water of which is well drained into distant 
watercourses, while its ground-air is uncontaminated 
by pathogenic bacteria. Exposure to. sunlight, and free 
circulation of air, are also requisite. 

According to Parkes, the soils in the order of their 
fitness for building purposes are as follows: 1) prim- 
itive rock; 2) gravel with pervious soil; 3) sandstone; 
4) limestone; 5) sandstone with impervious subsoil; 
6) clays and marls; 7) marshy land; and 8) made soils. 

It is very seldom, however, that a soil can be secured 
having all the requisites of a healthy site. In smaller 
places, as well as in cities, commercial and other reasons 
frequently compel the acquisition of and building upon 



10 HANDBOOK OK SANITATION. 

a site not fit for the purpose; it then becomes a sanitary 
problem how to remedy the defects and make the soil 
suitable for habitation. . . 

Prevention of the Bad Effects of the Soil on 
Health. — The methods taught by sanitary science to 
improve a defective soil and to prepare a healthy site 
are following : 

1) Street-paving and tree-planting. 

2) Proper construction of houses. 

3) Subsoil drainage. 

Street-paving serves a double sanitary purpose. It 
prevents street-refuse and sewage from penetrating the 
ground and contaminating the surface-soil, and it acts 
as a barrier to the free ascension of deleterious ground- 
air. 

Tree-planting acts as a factor in absorbing the 
ground-moisture and in oxidizing organic impurities. 

The Proper Construction of the House has for its 
purpose the prevention of the entrance of ground- 
moisture and air inside the house by building the foun- 
dations and cellar in such a manner as to entirely cut 
off communication between the ground and the dwell- 
ing. This is accomplished by putting under the foun- 
dation a solid bed of concrete, and under the founda- 
tion-walls damp-proof courses. By cementing the 
cellar with a proper cement of suitable thickness, damp- 
ness and ground-air are prevented from entering. 

Subsoil drainage. — By subsoil drainage is meant the 
reducing of the level of the ground-water by draining 
all subsoil water into certain watercourses, either arti 
ficial or natural. Subsoil drainage is not a modern dis- 



SOIL AND SITES. 



11 



DAMP COURSE 




. " "' ' * 



Fig. 1. — Concrete Foundation and Damp-proof Course. 
(Taylor.) 




Fig. 2.— Subsoil Drain-pipes. 



12 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

covery, as it was used in many ancient lands, and was 
extensively employed in ancient Eome, the valleys and 
suburbs of which would have been uninhabitable but 
for the draining of the marshes by the so-called 
" cloaca " or drains, w T hich lowered the ground-water 
level of the low parts of the city and made them fit to 
build upon. The drains for the conduction of subsoil 
water are placed at a certain depth, with a fall toward 
the exit. The materials for the drain are either stone 
and gravel trenches, or, better, porous earthenware 
pipes or ordinary drain-tile. The drains must not 
be impermeable or closed, and sewers are not to be used 
for drainage purposes. Sometimes open V-shaped 
pipes are laid under the regular sewers, if these are at 
the proper depth. 

By subsoil drainage it is possible to lower the level 
of ground-water wherever it is near or at the surface, 
as in swamps, marsh, and other lands, and prepare lands 
previously uninhabitable for healthy sites. 



CHAPTEE n. 
AIE. 

Composition.— The composition of atmospheric air is 
quite uniform, and is as follows in 100 volumes: 

Nitrogen : 79.00% 

Oxygen 20.96% 

Carbonic acid 00.04% 

Ozone, traces of ammonia, aqueous vapor, sus- 
pended solids, and variable gases. 

Nitrogen.- — The quantity of this constituent is in- 
variable. Its function seems to be that of a diluent of 
the oxygen, and as a participant in the various chemical 
processes of vegetable life. 

Oxygen varies in quantity but very little, from 
20.98% in pure mountain air to 20.87% in the air of 
cities. The greatest variation exists between inspired 
and expired air. In expired air the volume of oxygen 
present is 16.03%, as compared with the 20.87% in 
city air. Oxygen is the most important of all the air 
constituents. Light, heat, growth, and life itself, are 
due to the oxygen in the air, without which vegetable, 
animal, and human life would be extinct, and the earth 
cold, barren, and lifeless. When the relative quantity 

13 



14 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

of oxygen in the air falls below 8%, animals cannot 
breathe, but become asphyxiated. 

Carbonic acid or C0 2 (its chemical formula) is found 
in the air in the small average quantity of 0.04%, or 4 
parts in 10,000; the greatest quantity in confined 
spaces after the air has been breathed by people is 
0.06%. 

Carbonic acid is the product of organic decompo- 
sition and oxidation, and is indispensable to vegetable 
life, which absorbs it and exhales oxygen. The car- 
bonic acid content of air is taken as the standard of air 
impurity. 

Ozone, argon, and ammonia are found in very minute 
quantities, and their functions are not as yet definitely 
determined. 

Humidity, Temperature, and Pressure. — The at- 
mosphere is never entirely dry, there always being a 
relative amount of aqueous vapor, varying from 30% 
to 100%, or saturation. The relative proportions of 
aqueous vapor determine the degree of humidity, 
65-75% being regarded as the most beneficial to 
health. The warmth of the air is derived from the rays 
of the sun, according to the intensity of which the tem- 
perature varies. The atmosphere extends from the 
surface to an indefinite height, and, according to the 
law of gravitation, presses downward with a certain 
force. This force, called atmospheric pressure, varies 
according to the temperature and relative humidity of 
the air, a warmer air being lighter, a cold air heavier, 
and a dry air weighing less than a damp air. These 
differences in relative pressure, temperature, and hu- 



AIR 15 

midity produce the constant motion of the air, called 
" wind." 

Impurities in Air. — The atmosphere surrounds our 
earth, participates in its life, and is charged with debris 
and particles of mineral, vegetable, and animal life of 
the earth. By the action of gravitation and winds the 
suspended matters and gases are scattered and diffused, 
fall to the earth again, and are there digested, worked 
over, and oxidized in the great laboratory of iSTature. 

The impurities in air, according to their substance 
and character, are as follows : Mineral, Vegetable, Ani- 
mal, Bacteria, and Gases. 

The mineral substances found in the air are the parti- 
cles of soil, such as silica, sand, chalk, iron, lead, arsenic, 
zinc, copper, etc. 

The vegetable substances are carbon, fibres and cells, 
starch, grains, cotton, moulds, fungi, pollen, etc. 

The animal substances are either the debris from the 
various living and dead animals, or the microscopic ani- 
malculi suspended in the air. The following are some 
of the animal particles found in air : wool, silk fibres, 
human hair, epithelial cells, fragments of insects, pus 
cells, molecular debris, and the various micro-organ- 
isms. 

The bacteria in the air are either saprophytic or 
pathogenic, and their number varies from in pure 
mountain air to 79,000 per cubic metre in the air of 
Paris. 

The gaseous impurities of the air are the various 
compounds of carbon (carbon monoxide and dioxide), 
of hydrogen (sulphuretted and carburetted), of nitro- 



16 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

gen (ammonia, ammonia acetate, sulphide, nitrons and 
nitric acids), of sulphur, etc. 

Impurities According to their Source. — According 
to their source the impurities in the air are: 

Impurities due to respiration. 

Impurities due to organic decomposition. 

Impurities due to combustion. 

Impurities due to various trades. 

Impurities Due to Respiration. — The expired air 
from the lungs of man or beast is poorer in oxygen 
by about 4%, and richer in C0 2 by a similar quantity — 
4%. This increase in the C0 2 is not of much import- 
ance when in the free air, for any excess of one gas is 
speedily reduced; in confined spaces, however, the air 
which has been expired is soon laden with C0 2 until 
it becomes unfit for further respiration. Besides the 
increased C0 2 , respired air contains the organic ex- 
halations which go hand in hand with the increase of 
C0 2 . This organic matter, which vitiates the air and 
renders it malodorous and offensive, is a product of 
nitrogenous animal decomposition; it yields ammonia, 
darkens sulphuric acid, decolorizes potassium perman- 
ganate, and is, together with the decrease of O and in- 
crease of C0 2 , the cause of the poisonous action which 
unventilated rooms and places haye upon people. 
That a room in which the respired air is unchanged is 
directly poisonous, has been proved over and over 
again; and the oft-quoted Black Hole of Calcutta, in 
which 123 out of 146 people died within 10 hours, is 
cited as an example. 

Organic Decomposition is a prolific source of air im- 



AIR. 17 

purity. Of the organic human effluvia, we have already 
spoken; air is, however, largely vitiated by the emana- 
tion of the various decomposition products of organic 
matter, e.g., the effete products of man and beast, such 
as urine,' sewage, and other excrementitious matter. 
The atmosphere of cities is constantly contaminated 
with the effluvia from soil, ground-air, sewer-gases, 
etc. 

Combustion is also a very important source of air 
vitiation. The products of coal and wood combustion 
are carbon monoxide and dioxide, CO and C0 2 , various 
sulphur compounds, and a large quantity of soot and 
tarry matter. Illumination by oil, candles, gas, etc., 
is also a source of various impurities. Every cubic foot 
of gas burnt per hour vitiates the air as much as would 
be rendered impure by one individual. The electric 
light is the only illuminant that does not add impurities 
to the air. 

In certain trades a large amount of dust and also of 
various chemical substances and gases are produced 
which render the air in and about said places impure. 

Influence of Air on Health. — That the air, without 
which we cannot live more than a few minutes, has a 
great influence on the health of man, is self-evident. 
The physical condition of the air, the temperature, 
pressure, humidity, motion, relative content of one or 
the other of its constituents, the degree of vitiation, and 
the impurities in the air, all have a marked influence on 
the health, life, and longevity of man. 

Diseases Due to Impure Air. — Impure air has a di- 
rectly bad effect on health, and is capable of producing 



18 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

certain diseases. These diseases are due to the direct 
or indirect effects of the various impurities found in 
the air; impurities which have a very detrimental influ- 
ence upon the respiratory, digestive, and general func- 
tions of the body. 

C0 2 when habitually inhaled in small amounts causes 
malaise, headache, debility; in large amounts it is a 
virulent poison. 

The products of organic decomposition sewer-gas, 
and the many pathogenic bacteria which abound and 
multiply in decomposed organic matter, are all capable 
of producing various infectious and other diseases. 

Carbon monoxide and the other products of com- 
bustion and illumination cause, when constantly in- 
haled, various respiratory and constitutional diseases, 
and may produce death when inhaled in large amounts. 

The mechanical and chemical impurities which are 
produced during and in the process of the various man- 
ufactures and trades are the direct cause of many of the 
diseases of those employed in those trades. Altogether 
we can truthfully say that there is hardly a disease 
which is not directly or indirectly caused by the impuri- 
ties found in the air. 



CHAPTEK III. 
VENTILATION*. 

Definition. — The air within an uninhabited room 
does not differ from that without. If the room is occu- 
pied by one or more individuals, however, then the air 
in the room soon deteriorates, until the impurities 
therein reach a certain degree incompatible with health. 
This is due to the fact that with each breath a certain 
quantity of C0 2? organic impurities, and aqueous vapor 
is exhaled; and these products of respiration soon sur- 
charge the air until it is rendered impure and unfit for 
breathing. In order to render the air pure in such a 
room, and make life possible, it is necessary to change 
the air by withdrawing the impure, and substituting 
pure air from the outside. This is ventilation. 

Ventilation, therefore, is the maintenance of the air 
in a confined space in a condition conducive to health; 
in other words, " ventilation is the replacing of the im- 
pure air in a confined space by pure air from the out- 
side." 

Quantity of Air Required. — What do we regard as 
impure air? What is the index of impurity? How 
much air is required to render pure an air in a given 
space, in a given time ; for a given number of people ? 

19 



20 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

How often can the change be safely made, and how? 
These are the problems of ventilation. 

An increase in the quantity of C0 2 , and a propor- 
tionate increase of organic impurities, are the results 
of respiratory vitiation of the air; and it has been 
agreed to regard the relative quantity of C0 2 as the 
standard of impurity, its increase serving as an index 
of the condition of the air. We have seen that the 
normal quantity of C0 2 in the air is 0.04%, or 4 vol- 
umes in 10,000; and it has been determined that when- 
ever the 0O 2 reaches 0.06%, or 6 parts per 10,000, the 
maximum of air vitiation is reached — a point beyond 
which the breathing of the air becomes dangerous to 
health. 

We therefore know that an increase of 2 volumes 
of C0 2 in 10,000 of air constitutes the maximum 
of admissible impurity; the difference between 0.04% 
and 0.06%. Now, a healthy average^ adult at rest 
exhales in one hour 0.6 cubic foot of C0 2 . Having 
determined these two factors — the amount of C0 2 ex- 
haled in one hour and the maximum of admissible im- 
purity — we can find by dividing 0.6 by 0.0002 (or 0.02 
per cent.) the number of cubic feet of air needed for 
one hour, = 3000. 

Therefore, a room with a space of 3000 cubic feet, 
occupied by one average adult at rest, will not reach its 
maximum of impurity (that is, the air in such a room 
will not be in need of a change) before one hour has 
elapsed. 

The relative quantity of fresh air needed will differ 
for adults at work and at rest, for children, women^ etc. J 



VENTILATION. 21 

it will also differ according to the illuniinant employed, 
whether oil, candle, gas, etc. — an ordinary 3-foot gas- 
burner requiring 1800 cubic feet of air in one hour. 

It is not necessary, however, to have 3000 cubic feet 
of space for each individual in a room, for the air in the 
latter can safely be changed at least three times within 
one hour, thus reducing the air-space needed to about 
1000 cubic feet. This change of air or ventilation of a 
room can be accomplished by mechanical means of tener 
than three times in an hour, but a natural change of 
more than three times in an hour will ordinarily create 
too strong a current of air, and may cause draughts and 
chills dangerous to health. 

In determining the cubic space needed, the height of 
the room as well as the floor-space must be taken into 
consideration. As a rule the height of a room ought to 
be about one-third of the cubic space, and in ordinary 
rooms should not exceed 12 feet, as a height beyond 
that is of very little advantage. 

Forces of Ventilation. — We now come to the ques- 
tion of the various modes by which change in the air of 
a room is possible. Ventilation is natural or artificial 
according to whether artificial or mechanical devices are 
or are not used. Natural ventilation is only possible 
because our buildings and houses, their material and 
construction, are such that numerous apertures and 
crevices are left for air to come in; for it is evident that 
if a room were hermetically air-tight, no ventilation 
would be possible. 

The properties of air which render both natural 
and artificial ventilation possible are diffusion, motion, 



22 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION 

and gravity. These three forces are the natural agents 
of ventilation. 

There is a constant diffusion of gases taking place in 
the air; this diffusion takes place even through stone 
walls and through brick. The more porous the material 
of which the building is constructed, the more readily 
does diffusion take place. Dampness, plastering, paint- 
ing, and papering of walls diminish diffusion, however. 

The second force in ventilation is the motion of air, 
or winds. This is the most powerful agent of ventila- 
tion, for even a slight, imperceptible wind travelling 
about two miles an hour is capable, when the windows 
and doors of a room are open, of changing the air of 
a room 528 times in one hour. Air passes also through 
brick and stone walls. The objections to winds as a 
sole mode of ventilation are their inconstancy and irreg- 
ularity. When the wind is very slight, its ventilating 
influence is very small; on the other hand, when the 
wind is strong, it cannot be utilized as a means of ven- 
tilation on account of the air-currents being too strong 
and capable of exerting deleterious effects on health. 

The third, the most constant and reliable, and, in 
fact, principal agent of ventilation, is the specific 
gravity of the air, and the variations in the gravity and 
consequent pressure which are results of the variations 
in temperature, humidity, etc. Whenever air is 
warmer in one place than in another, the warmer air 
being lighter and the colder air outside being heavier, 
the latter exerts pressure upon the air in the room, 
causing the lighter air in the room to escape and be dis- 
placed by the heavier air from the outside, thus chang- 



VENTILATION. 23 

ing the air in the room. This mode of ventilation is 
always constant and at work, as the very presence of 
living beings in the room warms the air therein, thus 
causing a difference from the outside air and effecting 
change of air from the outside to the inside of the 
room. 

Methods of Ventilation. — The application of these 
principles of ventilation is said to be accomplished in a 
natural or an artificial way, according as mechanical 
means to utilize the forces and properties of air are used 
or not. But in reality natural ventilation can hardly be 
said to exist, since dwellings are so constructed as to 
guard against exposure and changes of temperature, 
and are usually equipped with numerous appliances for 
promoting change of air. Windows, doors, fire-places, 
chimneys, shafts, courts, etc., are all artificial methods 
of securing ventilation, although we usually regard 
them as means of natural ventilation. 

Natural Ventilation. — The means employed for ap- 
plying the properties or diffusion are the materials of 
construction. A porous material being favorable for 
diffusion, some such material is placed in several places 
within the wall, thus favoring change of air. Imperfect 
carpenter-work is also a help, as the cracks and openings 
left are favorable for the escape and entrance of air. 

Wind, or the motion of air, is utilized either directly, 
through windows, doors, and other openings; or indi- 
rectly, by producing a partial vacuum in passing over 
chimneys and shafts, causing suction of the air in them 
and the consequent withdrawal of the air from the 
rooms. 



24 



HANDBOOK ON SANITATION 



The opening of windows and doors is possible only 
in warm weather; and as ventilation becomes a problem 
only in temperate and cold weather, the opening of 
windows and doors cannot very well be utilized without 
causing colds, etc. Various methods have therefore 
been proposed for using windows for the purposes of 
ventilation without producing forcible currents of air. 




Fig. 3.— Hinkeb Bird Window. (Taylor.) 

The part of the window best fitted for the introduc- 
tion of air is the space between the two sashes, where 
they meet. The ingress of air is made possible whenever 
the lower sash is raised or the upper one is lowered. 



VENTILATION 



25 



In order to prevent cold air from without entering 
through the openings thus made, it has been proposed 
by Hinkes Bird to fit a block of wood in the lower open- 
ing; or else, as in Dr. Keen's arrangement, a piece of 
paper or cloth is used to cover the space left by the lift- 
ing or lowering of either or both sashes. Louvers or 
'inclined panes or parts of these may also be used. Parts 
or entire window-panes are sometimes wholly removed 
and replaced by tubes or perforated pieces of zinc, so 
that air may come in through the apertures. Again, 




Fig. 4. (Knight.) 

apertures for inlets and outlets may be made di- 
rectly in the walls of the rooms. These openings 
are filled in with porous bricks or with specially 
made bricks (like Ellison's conical bricks), or boxes 
provided with several openings. A very useful ap- 
paratus of this kind is the so-called Sherringham 
valve, which consists of an iron box fitted into the wall, 
the front of the box facing the room having an iron 
valve hinged along its lower edge, and so constructed 



26 



HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 



that it can be opened or be closed at will to let a cur- 
rent of air pass upward. Another very good appa- 




Fig. 5.— Sherringham Valve. (Taylor.) 



ratus of this kind is the Tobin ventilator, consisting of 
horizontal tubes let through the walls, the outer ends 




Fig. 6. (Knight.) 

open to the air, but the inner ends projecting into the 
room, where they are joined by vertical tubes carried 
up 5 feet or more from the floor, thus allowing the out- 
side air to enter upwardly into the room. This plan is 



VENTILATION. 



27 



also adapted for filtering and cleaning the incoming air 
by placing cloth or other material across the lumen of 
the horizontal tubes to intercept dust, etc. McKinnell's 
ventilator is also a useful method of ventilation, espe- 
cially of underground rooms. 

To assist the action of winds over the tops of shafts 




Fig. 7.— McKinnell's Ventilator. (Taylor.) 



and chimneys, various cowls have been devised. These 
cowls are arranged so as to help aspirate the air from 
the tubes and chimneys, and prevent a down-draught. 

The same inlets and outlets which are made to utilize 
winds may also be used for the ventilation effected by 
the motion of air due to difference in the specific gravity 
of outside and inside air. Any artificial warming of the 
air in the room, whether by illuminants or by the vari- 
ous methods of heating rooms, will aid in ventilating 
it, the chimneys acting as powerful means of removal 
for the warmer air. Various methods have also been 
proposed for utilizing the chimney, even when no 



28 



HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 



stoves, etc., are connected with it, by placing a gaslight 
within the chimney to cause an up-draught and conse- 
quent aspiration of the air of the room through it. 

The question of the number, relative size, and posi- 
tion of the inlets and outlets is a very important one, 




SUN BURNER 



Fig. 8. (Knight.) 



but we can here give only an epitome of the require- 
ments. 

The inlet and outlet openings should be about 24 
inches square per head. Inlet openings should be short, 
easily cleaned, sufficient in number to insure a proper 
distribution of air; should be protected from heat, pro- 
vided with valves so as to regulate the inflow of air, and, 
if possible, should be placed so as to allow the air pass- 
ing through them to be warmed before entering the 
room. Outlet openings should be placed near the ceil- 
ing, should be straight and smooth, and, if possible, 
should be heated so as to make the air therein warmer, 
thus preventing a down-draught, as is frequently the 
case when the outlets become inlets. 



VENTILATION. 



29 



Artificial Ventilation. — Artificial ventilation is ac- 
complished either by aspirating the air from the build- 
ing, known as the vacuum or extraction method, or by 
forcing into the building air from without; this is 
known as the plenum or propulsion method. 

The extraction of the air in a building is done by 




FAN EXTRACTING AND PROPELLING AIR 

Fig. 9.— Cowl Ventilators. (Knight.) 



means of heat, by warming the air in chimneys or spe- 
cial tubes, or by mechanical means with screws or fans 
run by steam or electricity; these screws or fans revolve 
and aspirate the air of the rooms, and thus cause pure 
air to enter. 

The propelling method of ventilation is carried out 
by mechanical means only, air being forced in from the 
outside by fans, screws, bellows, etc. 



30 



HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 



Artificial ventilation is applicable only where a large 
volume of air is needed, and for large spaces, such as- 
theatres, churches, lecture-rooms, etc. Tor the ordi- 




Fig. 10. 



nary building the expense for mechanical contrivances 
is too high. 

On the whole, ventilation without complex and cum- 
bersome mechanisms is to be preferred. 



CHAPTER IV. 
WARMING. 

Ventilation and Heating. — The subject of the heat- 
ing of our rooms and houses is very closely allied to 
that of ventilation, not only because both are a special 
necessity at the same time of the year, but also because 
we cannot heat a room without at the same time having 
to ventilate it, by providing an egress for the products 
of combustion and introducing fresh air to replace the 
vitiated. 

Need of Heating. —In a large part of the country, 
and during the greater period of the year, some mode 
of artificially heating rooms is absolutely necessary for 
our comfort and health. The temperature of the body 
is 98° to 99° F. : and there is a constant radiation of 
heatTdue to the cooling of the body surface. If the 
external temperature is very much below that of the 
body, and if the low temperature is prolonged, the radi- 
ation of heat from the body is too rapid, and colds, 
pneumonia, etc., result. The temperature essential for 
the individual varies according to age, constitution, 
health, environment, occupation, etc. A child, a sick 
person, or one at rest requires a relatively higher temper- 
ature than a healthy adult at work. The mean tem- 

31 



32 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

perature of a room must conducive to the health of the 
average person is from 65° to 75° F. 

The Three Methods of Heating. — The heating of a 
room can be accomplished either directly by the rays of 
the sun or processes of combustion. We thus receive 
radiant heat, exemplified by that of open fires and 
grates. 

Or, the heating of places can be accomplished by 
the heat of combustion being conducted through cer- 
tain materials, like brick walls, tile, stone, and also 
iron; this is conductive heat, as afforded by stoves, 
etc. 

Or, the heat is conveyed by means of air, water, or 
steam from one place to another, as in the hot-water, 
hot-air, and steam systems of heating; this we call con- 
verted heat. 

There is no strict line of demarcation-differentiating 
the three methods of heating, as it is possible that a ra- 
diant heat may at the same time be conductive as well 
as convective — as is the case in the Oalton fire-place, 
etc. 

Materials of Combustion. — The materials of com- 
bustion are air, wood, coal, oil, and gas. Air is indis- 
pensable, for, without oxygen, there can be no combus- 
tion. Wood is used in many places, but is too bulky 
and expensive. Oil is rarely used as a material of com- 
bustion, its principal use being for illumination. Coal 
is the best and cheapest material for combustion. The 
chief* objection against its use is the production of 
smoke, soot, and of various gases, as CO, C0 2 , etc. 
Gas is a very good, in fact, the best material for heating, 



WABMING. 33 

especially if, when used, it is connected with chimneys ; 
otherwise it is objectionable, as it burns up too much 
air, vitiates the atmosphere, and the products of com- 
bustion are deleterious; it is also quite expensive. 
The ideal means of heating is electricity. 

Chimneys. — All materials used for combustion yield 
products more or less injurious to health. Every sys- 
tem of artificially heating houses must therefore have 
not only means of introducing fresh air to aid in the 
burning up of the materials, but also an outlet for the 
vitiated, warmed air, partly charged with the products 
of combustion. These outlets are provided by chim- 
neys. Chimneys are hollow tubes or shafts built of 
brick and lined with earthen pipes or other mate- 
rial inside. These tubes begin at the lowest fire- 
place or connection, and are carried up several feet 
above the roof. The thickness of a chimney is from 
4 to 9 inches; the shape square, rectangular, or prefer- 
ably circular. The diameter of the chimney depends 
upon the size of the house, the number of fire-connec- 
tions, etc. It should be neither too small nor too large. 
Square chimneys should be 12 to 16 inches square; cir- 
cular ones from 6 to 8 inches in diameter for each fire- 
connection. The chimney consists of a shaft, or vertical 
tube, and cowls placed over chimneys on the roof to 
prevent down-draughts and the falling in of foreign 
bodies. That part of the chimney opening into the fire- 
place is called the throat. 

Smoky Chimneys. — A very frequent cause of 
complaint in a great many houses is the so-called "smoky 
chimney " ; this is the case when smoke and coal-gas es- 



34 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION 

cape from the chimney and enter the living rooms. 
The principal causes of this nuisance are : 

1) A too wide or too narrow diameter of the shafts. 
A shaft which is too narrow does not let all the smoke 
escape ; one which is too wide lets the smoke go up only 
in a part of its diameter, and when the smoke meets a 
counter-current of cold air it is liable to be forced back 
into the rooms. 

2) The throat of the chimney may be too wide, and 
will hold cold air, preventing the warming of the air in 
the chimneys and the consequent up-draught. 

3) The cowls may be too low or too tight, preventing 
the escape of the smoke. 

4) The brickwork of the chimney may be loose, 
badly constructed, or broken into by nails, etc., thus 
allowing smoke to escape therefrom. 

5) The supply of air may be deficient, as when all 
doors and windows are tightly closed. 

6) The chimney may be obstructed by soot or some 
foreign material. 

1) The wind above the house may be so strong that 
its pressure will cause the smoke from the chimney to 
be forced back. 

8) If two chimneys rise together from the same 
house, and one is shorter than the other, the draught of 
the longer chimney may cause an inversion of the cur- 
rent of air in the lower chimney. 

9) Wet fuel when used will cause smoke by its in- 
complete combustion. 

10) A chimney without a fire may suck down the 
smoke from a neighboring chimney; or, if two fire- 



WARMING. 35 

places in different rooms are connected with the same 
chimney, the smoke from one room may be drawn into 
the other. 

Methods of Heating. Open Fire-places and Grates. 
— Open fire-places and fires in grates connected with 
chimneys, and using coal, wood, or gas, are very com- 
fortable; nevertheless there are weighty objections to 
them. Firstly, but a very small part of the heat of the 
material burning is utilized, only about 12% being 
radiated into the room, the rest going up the chim- 
ney. Secondly, the heat of grates and fire-places is only 
local, being near the fires and warming only that part 
of the person exposed to it, leaving the other parts of 
the room and person cold. Thirdly, the burning of 
open fires necessitates a great supply of air, and causes 
powerful draughts. 

The open fire-place can, however, be greatly im- 
proved by surrounding its back and sides by an air- 
space, in which air can be warmed and conveyed into 
the upper part of the room; and if a special air-inlet 
is provided for supplying the fire with fresh air to be 
warmed, we get a very valuable means of heating. 
These principles are embodied in the Franklin and Gal- 
ton grates. A great many other grates have been sug- 
gested, and put on the market, but the principal objec- 
tion to them is their complexity and expense, making 
their use a luxury not attainable by the masses. 

Stoves. — Stoves are closed receptacles in which fuel 
is burned, and the heat produced is radiated towards the 
persons, etc., near them, and also conducted through 
the iron or other materials of which the stoves are made 



36 



HANDBOOK ON SANITATION 



to surrounding objects. In stoves 75$ of the fuel 
burned is utilized. They are made of brick, tile, and 
cast or wrought iron. 

Brick stoves, and stoves made of tile, are extensively 
used in some European countries, as Russia, Germany, 




Fig. 11.— Galton Grate. (Tracy.) 

Sweden, etc.; they are made of slow-conducting mate- 
rial, and give a very equable, efficient, and cheap heat, 
although their ventilating power is very small. 

Iron is used very extensively because it is a very 
good conductor of heat, and can be made into very con- 
venient forms. Iron stoves, however, are liable to be- 
come superheated, dry up, and sometimes burn the air 



WARMING, 



37 



around them, and produce certain deleterious gases 
during combustion. When the fire is confined in a clay 
fire-box, and the stove is not overheated, a good supply 
of fresh air being provided and a vessel of water placed 




Fig. 12. — Hot-aih Fukxace. 



on the stove to reduce the dryness of the air, iron stoves 
are quite efficient. 

Hot-air Warming. — In small houses the warming of 
the various rooms and halls can be accomplished by 



33 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION 

placing the stove or furnace in the cellar, heating a 
large quantity of air and conveying it through proper 
tubes to the rooms and places to be warmed. The 
points to be observed in a proper and efficient hot-air 
heating system are the following: 

1) The furnace must be of a proper size in propor- 
tion to the area of space to be warmed. 2) The joints 
and parts of the furnace must be gas-tight. 3) The 
furnace should be placed on the cold side of the house, 
and provision made to prevent cellar-air from being 
drawn up into the cold-air box of the furnace. 4) The 
air for the supply of the furnace must be gotten from 
outside, and the source must be pure, above the ground- 
level, and free from contamination of any kind. 5) 
.The cold-air box and ducts must be clean, protected 
against the entrance of vermin, etc., and easily cleaned. 
6) The air should not be overheated. ~7) The hot- 
air flues or tubes must be short, direct, circular, and 
covered with asbestos or some other non-conducting 
material. 

Hot-water System. — The principles of hot-water 
heating are very simple. Given a circuit of pipe filled 
with water, on heating the lower part of the circuit, 
the water, becoming warmer, will rise, circulate, and 
heat the pipes in which it is contained, thus warm- 
ing the air in contact with the pipes. The lower 
part of the circuit of pipe begins in the furnace or 
heater, and the other parts of the circuit are conducted 
through the various rooms and halls throughout the 
house to the uppermost story. The pipes need not be 
straight all through; hence, to secure a larger area for 



WABHING. 39 

heating, they are convoluted within the furnace, and 
also in the rooms, where the convoluted pipes are called 
radiators. The water may be warmed by the low- or 
high-pressure system; in the latter a pipe of small 
diameter can be employed, while in the former pipes of 
a large diameter wdll be required. The character, etc., 
of the boilers, furnace, pipes, etc., cannot be gone into 
here. 

Steam- heating System. — The principle of steam 
heating does not differ from that of the hot-water sys- 
tem. Here the pressure is greater and steam is em- 
ployed instead of water. The steam gives a greater de- 
gree of heat, but the pipes must be stronger and able 
to withstand the pressure. There are also combinations 
of steam and hot-water heating. . For large houses either 
steam or hot-water heating is the best means of warm- 
ing, and, if properly constructed and cared for, quite 
healthy. 



CHAPTEK V. 
WATER 

Composition. — Water is a compound of two ele- 
ments : Hydrogen and Oxygen, united in the propor- 
tion of 2 volumes of the former to 1 of the latter; its 
chemical formula is H 2 0. 

Quantity Required. — Owing to the many uses to 
which water is put, a large quantity is needed. The 
quantity varies according to the people and their de- 
gree of civilization, according to place, supply, etc. 
The average quantity of water needed for all purposes 
has been estimated to be about 50 gallons per head 
per day. Most of the cities furnish a larger supply, 
however. 

Characteristics and Quality of Water. — Water for 
drinking purposes must be clear, colorless, and with- 
out taste or odor; it should be aerated and free 
from impurities. Water is a powerful solvent, and 
therefore, in a state of nature, contains a great number 
of elements, compounds, and gases in solution as well 
as in suspension. The taste of water depends upon its 
source, character, substances present, gases, etc. When 
water contains a large quantity of calcium bicarbonate 
and magnesium salts, it is called hard. Soft water is 

40 



WATER. 41 

better than hard for washing and cooking purposes, as 
well as for production of steam, hard water causing 
much trouble by forming incrustations within pipes and 
boilers. Xot every palatable water is wholesome, as 
sometimes a palatable, sparkling water is due to excess 
of C0 2 produced by pollution with organic matter. 
Rain-water, when uncontaminated, is the purest and 
most wholesome, but it is not very palatable owing to its 
being unaerated. 

Source. — All water is derived primarily from the 
precipitation of aqueous vapor in form of rain, snow, 
and dew. 

The sources of water are : 

1) Rain-water, — collected immediately after falling, 
and stored for future use. 

2) Surface-water, — found in lakes, rivers, and ponds. 

3) Ground-water, — obtained from springs and wells. 
According to the Report of the River-Pollution Com- 
mission, waters are: 

f Spring-water, > palatable. 

Wholesome . . -{ Deep well-water, ) 

l Upland surface-water, J moderatelv palatable . 
f Stored rain-water, ) 

I Surface-water from cultivated land, \ 
u pi 10 . ,.-j River-water contaminated with sewage? [■ palatable, 
i Shallow well-water, ) 

Impurities. — Absolutely pure water can only be 
found in the laboratory in the form of distilled water, 
immediately after its condensation; otherwise water, be- 
ing a powerful solvent, will take up foreign materials 
and gases with which it may come in contact. Rain is the 



42 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION 

purest water found in nature, but in its transit through 
the air it takes up suspended impurities, and when it 
reaches the ground it is already contaminated by those 
impurities. The impurities found in water are classi- 
fied according to their character: mineral, vegetable, 
animal, bacterial, and gaseous; or according to their 
source, character of the soils, and contamination of the 
water due to the methods of its collection, storage, dis- 
tribution, etc. 

Pollution. — Owing to the fact that water takes up 
most inorganic and organic matters, it is often polluted 
by various poisonous materials, metals, organic impur- 
ities, and pathogenic bacteria with which it comes in con- 
tact on passing from its various sources, through the 
soil, surface-air, ground- water, etc. The sources of 
water-supply, especially within the soil and also on the 
surface, such as rivers and lakes, are prone to be contam- 
inated by sewage, refuse, bacteria, and other impurities, 
and the water derived from these sources may take up 
any or all of these impurities. 

Influence on Health and Diseases Due to Impure 
Water. — Next to air, water is most indispensable to life 
and health; and the lack of water, or a supply of water 
contaminated by impurities, naturally exerts a great in- 
fluence on health. A deficient supply for drinking 
purposes will cause failing health, and a lack of water 
for body cleansing and flushing purposes will impair the 
health and predispose to various diseases. The im- 
purities contained in water are capable of producing 
various diseases, according to the character of the im- 
purity and the quantity present. 



WATER. 43 

Among the diseases due to impure water are the fol- 
lowing : Diarrhoea, Dyspepsia, Constipation, Dysentery, 
Malarial Fevers, Typhoid, Cholera, Yellow Fever, Skin 
Diseases, Diseases of the Bones and Urinary Organs, 
etc. 



CHAPTER VI. 
WATEK-SUPPLY. 

Water-supply. — Wherever there is a large number 
of people in one place, the quantity of water needed for 
the use of the population is very great, and a supply of 
sufficient quantity and quality becomes a sanitary prob- 
lem of great importance. The importance of this 
problem had been recognized very early in the history 
of man; and we find in many ancient lands quite suc- 
cessful attempts to supply water on a grand scale. In 
Egypt artificial lakes were made to provide^an adequate 
water-supply in places where the natural supply by the 
'Nile was insufficient. Remains of gigantic water-basins 
of marvellous construction have been found in Peru and 
Mexico. In Ceylon there is found the remains of a 
great tank or artificial lake, 40 miles in circumference. 
It was in ancient Rome, however, that municipal 
water-supply reached its zenith of development. In the 
year 614 b.c. King Ancus Marcius began the first 
great aqueduct which supplied Rome with pure water 
drawn from a distant mountain ; and at the end of the 
first century a.d. we find in Rome 14 aqueducts supply- 
ing 375 millions of gallons, or about 300 gallons per 
head per diem. 

44 



WATER- SUPPLY. 45 

During the middle ages all sanitary measures, and 
also municipal water-supply, were neglected; and com- 
ing down to more recent times, we find that in the 
United States, at the beginning of the 19th century, 
only 17 water-works were in existence. During the 
past century, however, great progress has been made in 
this as well as in other sanitary matters ; and at present 
we find in the United States nearly 4,000 water-supply- 
ing works, most of them being owned by municipalities. 

Sources of Water-supply. — The sources of water 
are, as we have seen in the last chapter: 1) Rain, 2) sur- 
face-water, and 3) subsurface-water. 

Rain-water. — The supply of rain-water is uncertain, 
variable in quantity, and unreliable in quality. 

The quality of rain-water, apart from its lack of 
aeration, is good, but only a small part of the water 
needed can be conveniently collected for immediate use; 
and in order to make provision for future use, various 
receptacles must be employed for the storage of rain- 
water and its distribution. The receptacles employed 
for storage, ete., of rain-water are liable to be contam- 
inated, causing the impurities to pollute the water. As 
a rule, little reliance can be placed upon supplying a 
large number of people from rain-water directly. 

Surface-water. — Surface-water is but rain collected 
on the surface in the form of ponds, lakes, and rivers, 
which serve as natural reservoirs and storage-tanks for 
the collection of fresh water. The water from these 
sources is easy to obtain, and in unpopulated districts is, 
as a rule, very pure and fit for drinking purposes. The 
character of these waters depends, however, upon the 



46 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

nature of the soil in which they are located, and the 
degree of contamination due to sewage, refuse, and or- 
ganic impurities drained into the watercourses. The 
proximity of dwellings, towns, factories, etc., is of great 
importance, and greatly influences the character and 
purity of the natural water-supply. 

Subsurface- waters. — The water gained from under- 
ground sources is that found in springs and wells. 

Springs are natural outcroppings of subsoil-water, 
and are numerous in some mountain regions. The char- 
acter of spring-water varies according to the source, 
temperature, and physical character of the soils through 
which the water passes. There are iron, sulphur, salt, 
and other springs, according to the minerals they con- 
tain; there are also springs the waters of which are of 
high temperature. But in the great majority of springs 
the water is cool, free from impurities, and wholesome. 

Wells are holes bored in the ground to certain levels 
at which water is found. They are of two kinds : shal- 
low and deep. The shallow wells are those in which the 
water percolated into the ground and collected imme- 
diately under the first permeable soil-stratum, usually 
20 to 50 feet from the surface. The quality of shallow- 
well water is suspicious on account of the frequent con- 
tamination of the soil by the drainage from nearby as 
well as far-distant cesspools and sewers, whereby a great 
quantity of organic impurities may drain into it. When 
free from contamination the water from shallow wells 
is wholesome. 

Deep wells, or artesian wells, as they are also called, 
are wells the depth of which is over 50 feet from the 



WATER-SUPPLY. 47 

surface; and as the water in these wells is from the deep 
underlying soil-strata, it is consequently free from sur- 
face contamination, and is very good for drinking pur- 
poses. 

Storage, Collection, and Distribution. — Whenever 
a large quantity of water is required for future use, the 
water must be collected and stored in appropriate re- 
ceptacles made for the purpose. The collection, stor- 
age, and distribution of water is an engineering prob- 
lem which cannot be gone into here. Storage-tanks and 
reservoirs are constructed of brick, stone, or cement, if 
large, and of iron or wood, if small. All storage-vessels 
are liable to be contaminated, hence means must be pro- 
vided to protect and cleanse them. 

Where the source of water-supply is distant from the 
place of delivery, means have to be provided for convey- 
ing the water into the towns, etc., where it is to be used; 
this is done by stone and brick, also iron and lead con- 
duits and pipes, through which the water passes. 
There are some objections to iron as well as to lead 
pipes. Iron becomes rusty in time, and lead is prone to 
impart to the water some of its metal, and thus may 
cause lead-poisoning. Glazed iron pipes and pipes coated 
with various non-absorbing substances have been devised 
to meet these objections. 

Purification. — To free water from its impurities, the 
following various processes are in use. 

1) Distillation. This is the best and only way to get 
absolutely pure water free from any contamination. 
Distilled water has a somewhat insipid taste, but this is 
overcome after thorough aeration of the water. 



48 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

2) Boiling. This is the second best method, as the 
subjection of water to a continuous temperature of 212° 
F. kills most of the bacteria, and renders harmless all 
other impurities except mineral poisons. 

3) Chemical treatment. The addition of certain 
chemicals, such as alum, boric acid, potassium perman- 
ganate, etc. These purify the water, but their use is 
not a desirable method. 

4) Filtration. Water, when passing through gravel, 
sand, powdered pumice-stone, charcoal, etc., loses part 
or most of the suspended impurities contained in it. The 
method of purification of water by filtration is most 
in vogue, not only in domestic, but also in municipal, 
economy. To be effective, filtration must be thorough, 
and a more or less frequent change of filter is necessary. 
The average domestic filter, however, is a snare and a 
delusion, and gives but little protection. 



CHAPTEE VII. 
DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE. 

Waste Products, — There is a large amount of waste 
products in human and social economy. The products 
of combustion, such as ashes, cinders, etc. ; the products 
of street sweepings and waste from houses, as dust, rub- 
bish, paper, etc.; the waste from various trades; the 
waste from kitchens, e.g., scraps of food, etc.; the 
waste water from the cleansing processes of individ- 
uals, domestic animals, clothing, etc.; and finally the 
excreta — urine and feces — of man and animals; all 
these are waste products that cannot be left undisposed 
of, more especially in cities and wherever a large num- 
ber of people congregate. All waste products are classi- 
fied into three distinct groups: 1) Refuse, 2) Garbage, 
and 3) Sewage. 

The amount of refuse and garbage in cities is quite 
considerable; in Manhattan alone the dry refuse 
amounts to 1,000,000 tons a year, and that of garbage to 
175,000 tons per year. A large percentage of the dry 
refuse and garbage is valuable from a commercial 
standpoint, and could be utilized with proper facilities 
for collection and separation. The disposal of refuse 
and garbage has not as yet been satisfactorily dealt 
with. The modes of waste disposal in the United States 

49 



50 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

are: 1) Dumping into the sea; 2) filling in made land, 
or ploughing into lands; 3) cremation; and 4) reduction 
by various processes and the products utilized. 

Sewage. — By sewage we mean the waste and effete 
human matter and excreta — the urine and feces of hu- 
man beings and the urine of domestic animals (the feces 
of horses, etc., has great commercial value, and is 
usually collected separately and disposed of for fertiliz- 
ing purposes). 

The amount of excreta per person has been estimated 
(Frankland) as 3 ounces of solid and 40 ounces of fluid 
per day, or about 30 tons of solid and 100,000 gallons of 
fluid for each 1000 persons per year. 

In sparsely populated districts the removal and ulti- 
mate disposal of sewage presents no difficulties ; it is re- 
turned to the soil, which, as we know, is capable of puri- 
fying, disintegrating, and assimilating quite a large 
amount of organic matter. But when the number of 
inhabitants to the square mile increases, and the popu- 
lation becomes as dense as it is in some towns and cities, 
the disposal of the human waste products becomes a 
question of vast importance, and the proper, as well as 
the immediate and final, disposal of sewage becomes a 
serious sanitary problem. 

It is evident that sewage must be removed in a thor- 
ough manner, otherwise it would endanger the lives and 
health of the people. 

The dangers of sewage to health are : 

1) From its offensive odors, which, while not always 
directly dangerous to health, often produce headaches, 
nausea, etc. 



DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE. 51 

2) The organic matter contained in sewage decom- 
poses and eliminates gases and other products of de- 
composition. 

3) Sewage may contain a large number of pathogenic 
bacteria (typhoid, dysentery, cholera, etc.). 

4) Contamination of the soil, ground- water, and air, 
. by percolation of sewage. 

The problem of sewage-disposal is twofold: 1) Im- 
mediate; viz., the need of not allowing sewage to remain 
too long on the premises, and its immediate removal 
beyond the limits of the city; and 2) the final dis- 
position of the sewage, after its removal from the cities, 
etc. 

Modes of Ultimate . Disposal of Sewage. — The 
chief constituents of sewage are organic matter, min- 
eral salts, nitrogenous substances, potash, and phos- 
phoric acid. Fresh-mixed excrementitious matter has 
an acid reaction, but within 12-20 hours it becomes 
alkaline, because of the free ammonia formed in it. 
Sewage rapidly decomposes, evolving organic and fetid 
matters, ammonium sulphide, sulphuretted and car- 
buret ted hydrogen, etc., besides teeming wdth animal 
and bacterial life. A great many of the substances con- 
tained in sewage are valuable as fertilizers of soil. 

The systems of final disposal of sewage are as follows : 

1) Discharge into seas, lakes, and rivers. 

2) Cremation. 

3) Physical and chemical precipitation. 

4) Soil filtration. 

5) Laud irrigation. 

Discharge into Waters.— "£\ie ea^iost way to dispose 



52 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

of sewage is to let it flow into the sea or other run- 
ning watercourse. The objections to sewage discharg- 
ing into the rivers and lakes near cities, and especially 
such lakes and rivers as supply water to the municipal- 
ities, are obvious. But as water can purify a great 
amount of sewage, this method is still in vogue in cer- 
tain places, although it is to be hoped that it will in the 
near futue be superseded by more proper methods. 
The objection against discharging into seas is the opera- 
tion of the tides, which cause a backflow and overflow of 
sewage from the pipes. This backflow is remedied by 
the following methods: 1) Providing tidal flap-valves, 
permitting the outflow of sewage, but preventing the 
inflow of sea-water; 2) discharging the sewage inter- 
mittently, only during low tide; and 3) providing a con- 
stant outflow by means of steam-power pressure. 

Cremation. — Another method of getting rid of the 
sewage without attempting to utilize it is by cremation. 
The liquid portion of the sewage is allowed to drain and 
discharge into watercourses, and the more or less solid 
residues are collected and cremated in suitable crema- 
tories. . 

Precipitation.— This method consists in separating 
the solid matters from the sewage by precipitation by 
physical or chemical processes, the liquid being allowed 
to drain into rivers and other waters, and the precip- 
itated solids utilized for certain purposes. The precipita- 
tion is done either by straining the sewage, collecting it 
into tanks, and letting it subside, when the liquid is 
drawn off and the solids remain at the bottom of the 
tanks, a rather unsatisfactory method; or ? by chemical 



DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE. 53 

processes, precipitating the sewage by chemical means, 
and utilizing the products of such precipitation. The 
chemical agents by which precipitation is accomplished 
are many and various; among them are lime, alum, iron 
perchloride, phosphates, etc. 

Soil Filtration. — The sewage is filtered by passing 
it through some porous soil, by which it is purified and 
oxidized; if the filtration is intermittent and the soil 
porous and well drained, a large amount of sewage can 
be disposed of by this process. 

Land Irrigation. — In this method the organic and 
other useful portions of sewage are utilized for irrigat- 
ing land, to improve garden and other vegetable growths 
by feeding the plants with' the organic products of ani- 
mal excretion. Flat land, with a gentle slope, is best 
suited for irrigation. The quantity of sewage dis- 
posed of will depend on the character of the soil, its 
porosity, the time of the year, temperature, intermit- 
tency of irrigation, etc. As a rule, one acre of land is 
sufficient to dispose of the sewage of 100 to 150 
people. 

Sewage-disposal in the United States. — According 
to its location, position, etc., each city in the United 
States has its own method of final disposition of sewage. 
Either one or the other, or a combination of two of the 
above methods, are used. 

The following cities discharge their sewage into the 
sea: Portland, Salem, Lynn, Gloucester, Boston, Provi- 
dence, New York, Baltimore, Charleston, and Savan- 
nah. 

The following cities discharge their sewage into rivers 



54 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

and lakes : Philadelphia, Cincinnati, St. Louis, Albany, 
Minneapolis, St. Paul, Washington, Buffalo, Detroit, 
Richmond, Chicago, Milwaukee, and Cleveland. 

" Worcester uses chemical precipitation. In Atlanta a 
part of the soil is cremated, but the rest is deposited in 
pits 8X10 feet, and 5 feet deep. It is then thoroughly 
mixed with dry ashes from the crematory, and after- 
wards covered with either grain or grass. In Salt Lake 
City and in Woonsocket it is disposed of in the same 
way. In Indianapolis it is composted with marl and 
sawdust, and after some months used as a fertilizer. A 
portion of the sewage is cremated in Atlanta, Camden, 
Dayton, Evansville, Findlay, O., Jacksonville, McKees- 
port, Pa., Muncie, and New Brighton. In Atlanta, in 
1898, there were cremated 2362 loads of sewage. In 
Dayton, during 30 days, there were cremated 1900 
barrels of 300 pounds each." (Chapin, Mun. San. in 
U. 8.) 

The Immediate Disposal of Sewage. — The final dis- 
position of sewage is only one part of the problem of 
sewage-disposal; the other part is how to remove it from 
the house into the street, and from the street into the 
places from which it is finally disposed. 

The immediate disposal of sewage is accomplished by 
two methods — the so-called dry, and the water-carriage, 
methods. By the dry method we mean the removal of 
sewage without the aid of water, simply collecting 
the dry and liquid portions of excreta, storing it 
for some time, and then removing it for final dis- 
posal. By the water-carriage method is understood the 
system by which sewage, solid and liquid, is flushed 



DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE, 55 

out by means of water, through pipes or conduits called 
sewers, from the houses through the streets to the final 
destination. 

The Dry Methods. — The dry or conservacy method 
of sewage-disposal is a primitive method used by all 
ancient peoples; in China at the present time, and in all 
villages and sparsely populated districts; it has for its 
basic principle the return to mother earth of all ex- 
creta, to be used and worked over in its natural labora- 
tory. The excreta are simply left in the ground to un- 
dergo in the soil the various organic changes, the differ- 
ence in methods being only as regards the vessels of col- 
lection and storage. 

The methods are : 

1) Cesspool and privy-vault. 

2) Pail system. 

3) Physico-chemical system — earth, ashes, etc. 

4) Pneumatic system. 

The Privy-vault is the general mode of sewage-dis- 
posal in villages, some towns, and even in some large 
cities, wherever sewers are not provided. In its prim- 
itive and unfortunately common form, the privy-vault 
is nothing but a hole dug in the ground near or at 
some distance from the house ; the hole is but a few feet 
deep, with a plank or rough seat over it, and an impro- 
vised shed over all. The privy is filled with the excreta; 
the liquids drain into the adjacent ground, which be- 
comes saturated, and contaminates the nearest wells and 
watercourses. The solid portion is left to accumulate 
until the hole is filled or the stench becomes unbearable, 
when the hole is either covered up and forgotten, or 



56 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

the excreta are removed and the hole used over again. 
This is the common privy as we so often find it near 
the cottages and mansions of our rural populace, and 
even in towns. A better and improved form of privy is 
that built in the ground, and made water-tight by being 
constructed of bricks set in cement, the privy being 
placed at a distance from the house, the shed over it 
ventilated, and the contents of the privy removed reg- 
ularly and at stated intervals before they become a 
nuisance. At its best, however, the privy-vault is an 
abomination, as it can scarcely be so well constructed 
as not to contaminate the surrounding soil, or so often 
cleaned as to prevent decomposition and the escape of 
poisonous gases. 

The Pail System is an economic, simple, and, on 
the whole, very efficient method of removing fresh ex- 
creta. The excreta are passed directly into stone or 
metal water- and gas-tight pails, which, after filling, are 
hermetically covered and removed to the places for 
final disposal. This system is in use in Eoachdale, Man- 
chester, Glasgow, and other places in England. 

The Physico-chemical System consists in mixing va- 
rious ingredients, such as dry earth, ashes, charcoal, car- 
bolic acid, carbolated sand, etc., so as to disinfect and 
deodorize the excreta, which are then either used as a 
fertilizer, or are disposed of in other ways. 

The Pneumatic System is a rather complicated me- 
chanical method invented by a Dutch engineer, and is 
used extensively in Holland. In this system the excreta 
are passed to certain pipes and receptacles, and from 
there aspirated by means of air exhausts. 



DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE. 57 

The Water-carriage System* — We now come to the 

modern mode of using water to carry and flush all sew- 
age material. This method is being adopted throughout 
the civilized world. For it is claimed the reduction of 
the mortality rate wherever it is introduced. The water- 
carriage system presupposes the construction and ex- 
istence of pipes from the house to and through the street 
to the place of final disposition. The pipes running from 
the house to the streets are called house-sewers; and 
when in the streets, are called street-sewers. 

The Separate and Combined Systems. — Whenever 
the water-carriage system is used, it is either intended 
to carry only sewage proper, viz., solid and liquid ex- 
creta flushed by water, or rain-water and other waste 
water from the household, in addition. The water-car- 
riage system is accordingly divided into two systems: 
the combined, by which all sewage and all waste and 
rain-water are carried through the sewers, and the sep- 
arate system, in which two groups of pipes are used: 
the sewers proper to carry sewage only, and the other 
pipes to dispose of rain-water and other uncontaminated 
waste water. Each system has its advocates, its advan- 
tages, and disadvantages. 

The advantages claimed for the separate system are 
as follows : 

1) Sewers may be of small diameter, not more than 
6 inches. 

2) Constant, efficient flow and flushing of sewage. 

3) The sewage gained is richer in fertilizing matter. 

4) The sewers never overflow, as is frequently the 
case in the combined system. 



58 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION 

5) The sewers being small, no decomposition takes 
place therein. 

6) Sewers of small diameter need no special means 
of ventilation, or main traps on house-drains, and can 
be ventilated through the house-pipes. 

On the other hand, the disadvantages of the separate 
system are: 

1) The need of two systems of sewers, for sewage and 
for rain-water, and the expense attached thereto. 

2) The sewers used for sewage proper require some 
system for periodically flushing them, which, in the 
combined system, is done by the occasional rains. 

3) Small sewers cannot be as well cleaned or gotten 
at as larger ones. 

The separate system has been used in Memphis and 
in Keene, 'N. H., for a number of years with complete 
satisfaction. Most cities, however, use the combined 
system. 



CHAPTER VIIX. 
SEWERS. 

Definitions. — A sewer is a conduit or pipe intended 
for the passage of sewage, waste, and rain-water. 

A liouse-sewer is the branch sewer extending from a 
point two feet outside of the outer wall of the building 
to its connection with the street-sewer, etc. 

Materials. — The materials from which sewers are 
constructed are iron, cement, and vitrified pipe. 

Iron is used only for pipes of small diameter; and as 
most of the sewers are of greater diameter than 6 inches, 
they are made of other material than iron. 

Cement and brick sewers are frequently used, and, 
when properly constructed, are efficient, although the 
inner surface of such pipes is rough, which causes ad- 
herence of sewage matter. 

The most common material of which sewers are man- 
ufactured is earthenware, " vitrified pipes." 

" Vitrified pipes are manufactured from some kind 
of clay, and are salt-glazed inside. Good vitrified pipe 
must be circular and true in section, of a uniform thick- 
ness, perfectly straight, and free from cracks or other 
defects ; they must be hard, tough, not porous, and have 

59 



60 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION 

a highly smooth surface. The thicknesses of vitrified 
pipes are as follows : 

A inches diameter . . . . -| inch thick 

O * • ♦ • TS* 

O .... 4 

12 " " .... 1 " " 

The pipes are made in 2- and 3-foot lengths, with spigot- 
and socket-ends." (Gerhardt.) 




Fig. 13.— Bkick Sewer. 



Sewer-pipes are laid in trenches at least 3 feet deep, 
to insure against the action of frosts. 



SEWEBS. 61 

Construction* — The level of the trenches in which 
sewers are laid should be accurate, and a hard bed must 
be secured or prepared for the pipes to lie on. If the 
ground is sandy and soft, a solid bed of concrete should 
be laid, and the places where the joints are should be 
hollowed out, and the latter embedded in cement. 

Joints. — The joints of the various lengths must be 
gas-tight, and are made as follows: Into the hub 
(the enlargement on one end of the pipe) the spigot- 
end of the next length is inserted, and in the space left 
between the two a small piece, or gasket, of oakum, is 
rammed in; the remaining space is filled in with a mix- 
ture of the best Portland cement and clean, sharp sand. 
The office of the oakum is to prevent the cement from 
getting on the inside of the pipe. The joint is then 
wiped around with additional cement. 

Fall. — In order that there should be a steady and 
certain flow of the contents of the sewer, the size and 
fall of the latter must be suitable ; that is, the pipes must 
be laid with a steady, gradual inclination or fall toward 
the exit. This fall must be even, without sudden 
changes, and not too great or too small. 

The following has been determined to be about the 
right fall for the sizes stated: 

4-inch pipe. ... 1 foot in 40 feet 

6 " " 1 " " 60 " 

9 " " 1 " " 90 " 

12 " " 1 " " 120 " 

Flow. — The velocity of the flow in sewers depends on 
the volume of their contents, the size of the pipes, and 



62 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

the fall. The velocity should not be less than 120 feet 
in a minute, or the sewer will not be self -cleansing. 

Size. — In order for the sewer to be self -cleansing, its 
size must be proportional to the work to be accom- 
plished, so that it may be fully and thoroughly flushed 
and not permit stagnation and consequent decomposi- 
tion of its contents. If the sewer be too small, it will 
not be adequate for its purpose, and will overflow, back 
up, etc. ; if too large, the velocity of the flow will be too 
low, and stagnation will result. In the separate system, 
where there is a separate provision for rain-water, the 
size of the sewer ought not to exceed 6 inches in diam- 
eter. In the combined system, however, when arrange- 
ments must be made for the disposal of large volumes 
of storm-water, the size of the sewer must be larger, 
thus making it less self -cleansing. 

Connections. — The connections of thei)ranch sewers 
and the house-sewers with the main sewer must be care- 
fully made, so that there shall be no impediment to the 
flow of the contents, either of the branches or of the 
main pipe. The connections must be made gas-tight; not 
at right angles or by T branches, but by bends, curves, 
and Y branches, in the direction of the current of the 
main pipe, and not opposite other branch pipes; and the 
junction of the branch pipes and the main pipe must 
not be made at the crown or at the bottom of the sewer, 
but just within the water-line. 

Tide- valves. — Where sewers discharge their con- 
tents into the sea, the tide may exert pressure upon the 
contents of the sewer and cause " backing up," blocking 
up the sewer, bursting open trap-covers, and overflow- 



SEWERS. 63 

ing into streets and houses. To prevent this, there are 
constructed at the mouth of the street-sewers, at the 
outlets to the sea, proper valves or tide-flaps, so con- 
structed as to permit the contents of the sewers to flow 
out, yet prevent sea-water from backing up by imme- 
diately closing upon the slightest pressure from outside. 

House-sewers. — Where the ground is " made," or 
filled in, the house-sewer must be made of cast iron, with 
the joints properly calked with lead. Where the soil 
consists of a natural bed of loam, sand, or rock, the 
house-sewer may be of hard, salt-glazed, and cylindrical 
earthenware pipe, laid in a smooth bottom free from 
projections of rock, and with the soil well rammed to 
prevent any settling of the pipe. Each section must be 
wetted before applying the cement, and the space be- 
tween each hub and the small end of the next section 
must be completely and uniformly filled with the best 
hydraulic cement. Care must be taken to prevent any 
cement being forced into the pipe to form an obstruc- 
tion. No tempered-up' cement should be used. A 
straight-edge must be used inside the pipe, and the dif- 
ferent sections must be laid in perfect line on the bot- 
tom and sides. 

Connections of the house-sewer [when of iron] with 
the house main pipe must be made by lead-calked joints; 
the connection of the iron house-pipe with the earthen- 
ware house-sewer must be made with cement, and 
should be gas-tight. 

Sewer-air and Gas. — Sewer-gas is not a gas at all. 
What is commonly understood by the term is the air 
of sewers, the ordinary atmospheric air, but charged 



64 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION 

and contaminated with the various products of organic 
decomposition takes place in sewers. Sewer-air is a 
mixture of gases, the principal gases being carbonic 
acid; marsh gas; compounds of hydrogen and carbon; 
carbonate and sulphides of ammonium; ammonia; sul- 
phuretted hydrogen; carbonic oxide, volatile fetid mat- 
ter; organic putrefactive matter, and pathogenic and 
other bacteria. 

It is evident that an air charged with so many im- 
purities is not fit to be respired, and, when inhaled, will 
produce effects injurious to health. It has been proved 
that not only does sewer-air produce a lowering of the 
vital forces and a general decline of health in those 
habitually breathing it, but that it is also capable of di- 
rectly causing many and various diseases. The contents 
of sewers are the breeding-places for various virulent 
bacteria of infectious diseases, such as typhoid, dys- 
entery, diarrhoea, etc., and constitute a favorable cul- 
ture-medium for all other disease-causing organisms. 
Sewer-air is, therefore, directly dangerous to health 
and life. 

Ventilation. — To guard against the bad effects of 
sewer-air, it is necessary to dilute, change, and ventilate 
the air in sewers. This is accomplished by the various 
openings left in the sewers, the so-called lamp and man- 
holes which ventilate by diluting the sewer-air with 
the street-air. In some places, chemical methods of 
disinfecting the contents of sewers have been under- 
taken with a view to killing the disease-germs and 
deodorizing the sewage. In the separate system of 
sewage-disposal, where sewer-pipes are small and usually 



SEWEBS. 65 

self-cleansing, the late Col. Waring proposed to ventil- 
ate the sewers through the house-pipes, omitting the 
usual disconnection of the house-sewer from the house- 
pipes. But in the combined system such a procedure 
would be dangerous, as the sewer-air would be apt to 
enter the house. 

Rain-storms are the usual means by which a thor- 
ough flushing of the street-sewers is effected. There 
are, however, many devices proposed for flushing sew- 
ers; e.g., by special flushing-tanks, which either auto- 
matically or otherwise discharge a large volume of wa- 
ter, thereby flushing the contents of the street-sewers. 



CHAPTEK IX. 
PLUMBING. GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 

Purpose and Requisites of House-plumbing. — A 

system of house-plumbing presupposes the existence of 
a street-sewer, and a water-supply distribution within 
the house. While the former is not absolutely essential, 
as a house may have a system of plumbing without there 
being a sewer in the street, still in the water-carriage 
system of disposal of sewage the street-sewer is the out- 
let for the various waste and excrementitious matter of 
the house. The house-water distribution serves for the 
purpose of flushing and cleaning the various pipes in the 
house-plumbing. 

The purposes of house-plumbing are: 1) to get rid 
of all excreta and waste water; 2) to prevent any for- 
eign matter and gases in the sewer from entering the 
house through the pipes; and 3) to dilute the air in the 
pipes so as to make all deleterious gases therein innoc- 
uous. 

To accomplish these results, house-plumbing demands 
the following requisites: 

1) Receptacles for collecting the waste and excreta. 
These receptacles, or plumbing fixtures, must be ade- 
quate for the purpose, small, non-corrosive, self-cleans- 

66 



PLUMBING. GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 67 

ing, well flushed, accessible, and so constructed as to 
easily dispose of their contents. 

2) Separate vertical pipes for sewage proper, for 
waste water, and for rain-water; upright, direct, 
straight, non-corrosive, water- and gas-tight, well 
flushed, and ventilated. 

3) Short, direct, clean, well flushed, gas-tight branch 
pipes to connect receptacles with vertical pipes. 

4) Disconnection of the house-sewer from the house- 
pipes by the main trap on house-drain, and disconnec- 
tion of house from the house-pipes by traps on all fix- 
tures. 

5) Ventilation of the whole system by the fresh-air 
inlet, vent-pipes, and the extension of all vertical pipes. 

Definitions. -^-The house-drain is the horizontal main 
pipe receiving all waste water and sewage from the ver- 
tical pipes, and conducting them outside of the founda- 
tion-walls, where it joins the house-sewer. 

The soil-pipe is the vertical pipe or pipes receiving 
sewage matter from- the water-closets in the house. 

The main waste-pipe is the pipe receiving waste 
water from any fixtures except the water-closets. 

Branch soil- and waste-pipes are the short pipes be- 
tween the fixtures in the house and the main soil- and 
waste-pipes. 

Traps are bends in pipes, so constructed as to hold a 
certain volume of water, called the water-seal; this 
water-seal serves- as a barrier to prevent air and gases 
from the sewer from entering the house. 

Vent-pipes are the special pipes to which the traps or 
fixtures are connected by short-branch vent-pipes, and 



68 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION 

serve to ventilate the air in the pipes, and prevent 
syphonage. 

The rain-leader is the pipe receiving rain and storm- 
water from the roof of the house. 

Materials Used for Plumbing Pipes. — The mate- 
rials from which the different pipes used in house- 
plumbing are made differ according to the use of each 
pipe, its position, size, etc. The following materials are 
used: cement, -vitrified pipe, lead, cast, wrought, and 
galvanized iron, brass, steel, nickel, sheet metal, etc. 

Cement and vitrified pipes axe used for the manu- 
facture of street- and house-sewers. In some places 
vitrified pipe is used for house-drains, but in most cities 
this is strongly objected to; and in New York City no 
earthenware pipes are permitted within the house. The 
objection to earthenware pipes are that they are not 
strong enough for the purpose, break easily, and cannot 
be made gas-tight. 

Lead pipe is used for all branch waste-pipes, and 
short lengths of water-pipes. The advantage of lead 
pipes is that they can be easily bent and shaped, hence 
their use for traps and connections. The disadvantage 
of lead for pipes is the softness of the material, which 
is easily broken into by nails, gnawed through by rats, 
etc. 

Brass, nickel, steel, and other such materials are used 
in the manufacture of expensive plumbing, but are not 
commonly employed. 

Sheet metal and galvanized iron are used for rain- 
leaders, refrigerator-pipes, etc. 

Wrought iron is used in the so-called Durham system 



PLUMBING. GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 



69 



of plumbing. Wrought iron is very strong; the sec- 
tions of pipe are 20 feet long, the connections are made 
by screw-joints, and a system of house-plumbing made 
of this material is very durable, unyielding, strong, and 
perfectly gas-tight. The objections to wrought iron 
for plumbing-pipes are that the pipes cannot be readily 
repaired and that it is too expensive. 

Cast iron is the material universally used for all 
vertical and horizontal pipes in the house. There are 
two kinds of cast-iron pipes manufactured for plumbing 
uses: the " standard and the extra heavy." 

The following are the relative weights of each: 



Standard. 








Extra Heavy 


2 -inch 


pipe, 


4 lbs. 


per 


foot 


5i lbs. 


3 " 


U 


6 " 


a 


u 


9i " 


4 " 


a 


9 " 


a 


a 


13 " 


5 " 


a 


12 " 


a 


a 


17 " 


6 " 


a 


15 " 


a 


a 


20 " 


7 " 


a 


20 " 


a 


a 


27 •" 


8 " 


H 


25 " 


ii 


a 


33i " 



The light-weight pipe, though extensively used by 
plumbers, is generally prohibited by most municipali- 
ties, as it is not strong enough for the purpose, and it 
is difficult to make a gas-tight joint with these pipes 
without breaking them. 

Cast-iron pipes are made in lengths of 5 feet each, 
with an enlargement on one end of the pipe, called the 
" hub " or " socket/' into which the other, or " spigot " 
end, is fitted. All cast-iron pipe must be straight, 



70 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

sound, cylindrical and smooth, free from sand-holes, 
cracks, and other defects, and of a uniform thickness. 
The thickness of cast-iron pipes should be as follows: 

2-inch pipe yV inches thick. 



3 


U 


u 


u 


4 


u 


u 


| 


5 


(( 


u 


A 


6 


u 


a 


i 



Cast-iron pipes are sometimes coated by dipping into 
hot tar, or by some other process. Tar-coating is, how- 
ever, not allowed in ISTew York, because it conceals the 
sand-holes and other flaws in the pipes. 

Joints and Connections. — To facilitate connections 
of cast-iron pipes, short and convenient forms and fit- 
tings are cast, as seen in Figs. 14 and 15. J3ome of these 
connections are named according to their shape, such as 
L, T, Y, etc. 

Iron pipe is joined to iron pipe by lead-calked joints. 
These joints are made as follows: the spigot end of one 
pipe is inserted into the enlarged end, or the " hub," of 
the next pipe. The space between the spigot and hub 
is half filled with oakum or dry hemp. The remaining 
space is filled with hot molten lead, which, on cooling, 
is well rammed and calked in by special tools made for 
the purpose. To make a good, gas-tight, lead-calked 
joint, experience and skill are necessary. The ring of 
lead joining the two lengths of pipe must be from 1 to 
2 inches deep, and from \ to f of an inch thick; 12 
ounces of lead must be used at each joint for each inch 



PLUMBING. GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 



71 





Short Y Branch. 



Long Y Branch. 




Double Y Branch. 



Offset. 




90° Bend. 




Figs. 14-15, 



4 Bend. 



72 



HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 





\ Bend. 




^c Bend. 




Bend. 




Return-bend. 




Vent-branch for Back 
Air-bire. 



Figs, 14-15. 



PLUMBING. GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 



73 




T Branch. 



Double T-Y. 



Y-saddle Hub. 




Length of Soil-pipe with Single Hub. 




Pipe Bend. 




Brass Ferrule. 





Increaser. 



Reducer. 



Figs. 14-15. 



74 BANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

in the diameter of the pipe. Iron pipes are sometimes 
connected by means of so-called rust-joints. Instead of 
lead, the space between the socket and spigot is filled in 
with an iron cement consisting of 98 parts of cast-iron 
borings, 1 part of flowers of sulphur, and 1 part of sal 
ammoniac. 

All connections between lead pipes and between lead 
and brass or copper pipes must be made by means of 
" wiped " solder-joints. A wiped joint is made by 
solder being poured on two ends of the two pipes, the 
solder being worked about the joint, shaped into an 
oval lump, and wiped around with a cloth, giving the 
joint a bulbous form. 

AH connections between lead pipes and iron pipes 
are made by means of brass ferrules. Lead cannot be 
soldered to iron, so a brass fitting or ferrule is used; it 
is jointed to the lead pipe by a wiped joint, and to the 
iron pipe by an ordinary lead-calked joint. 

Putty, cement, and slip joints should not be tolerated 
on any pipes. 

Traps. — We have seen that a trap is a bend in a pipe 
so constructed as to hold a quantity of water sufficient 
to interpose a barrier between the sewer and the fixture. 
There are many and various kinds of traps, some de- 
pending on water alone as their " seal," others employ- 
ing mechanical means, such as balls, valves, lips, also 
mercury, etc., to assist in the disconnection between the 
house and sewer ends of the pipe system. 

The value of a trap depends: 1) on the depth of its 
water-seal; 2) on the strengths and permanency of the 
seal; 3) on the diameter and uniformity of the trap; 



PLUMBING. GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 75 

-r) on its simplicity; 5) on its accessibility; and 6) on its 
self -cleansing character. 

The depth of a trap should be about 3 inches for 
water-closet traps, and about 2 inches for ^ink and other 
traps. 

Traps must not be larger in diameter than the pipe 
to which they are attached. 

The simpler the trap, the better it is. 

Traps should be provided with cleanout screw-open- 
ings, caps, etc., to facilitate cleaning. 

The shapes of traps vary, and. the number of the 
various kinds of traps manufactured is very great. 

Traps are named according to their use: gully, 
grease, sediment, intercepting, etc.; according to their 
shape : D, P, S, V, bell, bottle, pot, globe, etc, ; and ac- 
cording to the name of their inventor: Buchan, Cottam, 
Dodd, Antill, Eenk, Hellyer, Croydon, and others too 
numerous to mention. Figs. 16 and 17 show some 
forms of traps. 

The S trap is the best for sink waste-pipes; the run- 
ning trap is the best on house-drains. 

Loss of Seal by Traps. — The seals of traps are not 
always secure, and the causes of unsealing of traps are 
as follows : 

1) Evaporation. If a fixture in a house is not used 
for a long time, the water constituting the seal in the 
trap of the fixture will evaporate; the seal will thus be 
lost, and ingress of sewer-air will result. To guard 
against evaporation, fixtures must be frequently 
flushed; and during summer, or at such times as the 
house is unoccupied and the fixtures not used, the traps 



76 



HANDBOOK ON SANITATION 



eaiNPteve 



^ppcrcAi 




NAM! 



PRINCIPLE 



APPLICATION 



P Q S 

lr * ia 

5b" & to 

U V w 

DOUBLE-U 




■' Fig. 16.— Nomenclature. (Knight). 




Fig. 17.— Running Trap. 



PLUMBING, GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 



m , 




| STbap. 




\ S Trap. 




78 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION 

are to be filled with oil or glycerine, either of which will 
serve as an efficient seal. 

2) Momentum. A sudden flow of water from the 
fixture may, by the force of its momentum, empty all 
water in the trap and thus leave it unsealed. To pre- 
vent the unsealing of traps by momentum, they must 
be of a proper size, not less than the waste-pipe of the 
fixture, the seal must be deep, and the trap in a per- 
fectly straight position, as a slight inclination will favor 
its emptying. Care should also be taken while emptying 
the fixture to do it slowly so as to preserve the seal. 

3) Capillary attraction. If a piece of paper, cotton, 
thread, hair, etc., remain in the trap, and a part of the 
paper, etc., projecting into the lumen of the pipe, a 
part of the water will be withdrawn by capillary at- 
traction from the trap and may unseal it. To guard 
against unsealing of traps by capillary attraction, traps 
should be of a uniform diameter, without nooks and 
corners and of not too large a size, and should also be 
well flushed, so that nothing but water remain in the 
trap. 

Syphonage. A large volume of water completely 
filling and descending a vertical pipe must in its course 
create powerful suction, and may, by the force of its 
suction and the vacuum created, aspirate all contents 
of smaller waste-pipes and the traps connected with the 
same vertical pipe; the water-seal is thus taken out of 
the traps, leaving them unsealed. This action is called 
syphonage. 

One way to prevent the syphonage of traps is by the 
employment of mechanical means to assist the water- 



PLUMBIXG. GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 



79 



seal. This is done in the mechanical traps, which, while 
of value at times, are rather cumbersome and liable to 
get out of order. 




Copyright by the J, L. Mott Iron Work?. 

Fig. 17. — Non-syphontng Trap. 

The other way to prevent the unsealing of traps is to 
avoid the creating of a vacuum by extending the verti- 
cal pipes over the roof and by connecting the traps 
with open vent-pipes, the air in which will prevent the 



80 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

formation of a vacuum and consequent syphonage of 
the traps. This is provided in the vent system. Each 
trap at its upper portion, or crown, is connected with a 
branch pipe running up to and joining a straight pipe 
which leads out to the air, thus giving each trap a cer- 
tain column of air to prevent the creation of a vacuum. 
This vent system also serves the purpose of ventilating 
the air in the traps and the pipes connecting with them. 



CHAPTER X. 
PLUMBING-PIPES. 

The House-drain. — All waste and soil matter in the 
house is carried from the receptacles into the waste- and 
soil-pipes, and from these into the house-drain, the main 
pipe of the house, which carries all waste and soil into 
the street-sewer. The house-drain extends from the 
junction of the soil- and ' waste-pipes of the house 
through the house to outside of the foundations 2-5 
feet, whence it is called " house-sewer." The house- 
drain is a very important part of the house-plumbing 
system, and great care must be taken to make its con- 
struction perfect. 

Material. The material of which house-drains are 
manufactured is extra heavy cast iron. Lighter pipes 
should never be used, and the use of vitrified pipes for 
this purpose should not be allowed. 

Size. The size of the house-drain must be propor- 
tional to the work to be performed. Too large a pipe 
will not be self -cleansing, and the bottom of it will fill 
with sediment and slime. Were it not for the need of 
carrying off large volumes of storm-water, the house- 
drain could be a great deal smaller than it usually is. A 
3-inch pipe is sufficient for a small house, though a 4- 

81 



82 



HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 



fc=ai 





PLUMBING-PIPES. 83 

inch pipe is made obligatory in most cities; in very large 
buildings a 5- or 6-inch pipe is required. 

Fall. The fall or inclination of the house-drain de- 
pends on its size. Every house-drain must be laid so that 
it should have a certain inclination toward the house- 
sewer, so as to increase the velocity of flow in it and 
make it self-flushing and self-cleansing. The rate of 
fall should be as follows : 

For 4-inch pipe .... 1 in 40 feet 
" 5 " " 1 " 50 " 



a 



6 " " .... 1 " 60 



Position. The house-drain lies in a horizontal posi- 
tion in the cellar, and should, if possible, be exposed to 
view. It should be hung on the cellar-wall or ceiling, 
unless this is impracticable, as when fixtures in the cellar 
discharge into it ; in this case it must be laid in a trench 
cut in a uniform grade, walled upon the sides with bricks 
laid in cement, and provided with movable covers and 
with a hydraulic-cement base 4 inches thick, on which 
the pipe is to rest. The house-drain must be laid in 
straight lines, if possible ; all changes in direction must 
be made with curved pipes, the curves to be of a large 
radius. 

Connections. The house-drain must properly con- 
nect with the house-sewer at. a point 2 feet outside of the 
outer front vault or area-wall of the building. An 
arched or other proper opening in the wall must be 
provided for the drain, to prevent damage by settle- 
ment. 



84 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

All joints of the pipe must be gas-tight, lead- 
calked joints, as stated before. The junction of the 
vertical soil-, waste-, and rain-leader pipes must not be 
made by right-angle joints, but by a curved-elbow fit- 
ting of a large radius, or by " Y " branches and 45° 
bends. 

When the house-drain does not rest on the floor, but 
is hung on the wall or ceiling of the cellar, the connec- 
tion of the vertical soil- and waste-pipes must have suit- 
able supports, the best support being a brick pier laid 
9 inches in cement and securely fastened to the wall. 

Near* all bends, traps, and connections of other pipes 
with the house-drain, suitable handholes should be pro- 
vided, these handholes to be tightly covered by brass 
screw-ferrules, screwed in and fitted with red lead. 

" No steam-exhaust, boiler blow-off, or -drip-pipe shall 
be connected with the house-drain or sewer. Such pipes 
must first discharge into a proper condensing-tank, and 
from this a proper outlet to the house-sewer outside of 
the building must be provided." 

Main traps. The disconnection of the house-pipes 
from the street-sewer is accomplished by a trap on the 
house-drain near the front wall, inside the house, or just 
outside the foundation-wall, but usually inside of the 
house. The best trap for this purpose is the syphon or 
running-trap. This trap must be constructed with a 
cleaning handhole on the inside or house side of the 
trap, or on both sides, and the handholes are to be cov- 
ered gas-tight by brass screw-ferrules. 

Extension of vertical pipes. By the main trap the 
house-plumbing system is disconnected from the power; 



PL UMBING-PIPES. 8 5 

and by the traps on each fixture from the air in the 
rooms; still, as the soil-, waste-, and drain-pipes usually 
contain offensive solids and liquids which contaminate 
the air in the pipes, it is a good method to ventilate 
these pipes. This ventilation of the soil-, waste-, and 
house-drain pipes prevents the bad effects on health 
from the odors, etc., given off by the slime and excreta 
adhering in the pipes, and it is accomplished by two 
means : 1) by extension of the vertical pipes to the fresh 
air above the roof, and 2) by the fresh-air inlet on the 
house-drain. 

By these means a current of air is established through 
the vertical and horizontal pipes. 

Every vertical pipe must be extended above the roof 
at least 2 feet above the highest coping of the roof or 
chimney. The extension must be far from the air- 
shafts, windows, ventilators, and mouths of chimneys, 
so as to prevent air from the pipes being drawn into 
them. The extension must be not less than the full 
size of each pipe, so as to avoid friction from the circu- 
lation of air. The use of covers, cowls, return-bends, 
etc., is reprehensible, as they interfere with the free 
circulation of air. A wire basket may be inserted to 
prevent foreign substances from falling into pipes. 

Fresh-air inlet. The fresh-air inlet is a pipe of about 
4 inches in diameter; it enters the house-drain on the 
house side of the main trap, and extends to the external 
air at or near the curb, or at any convenient place, at 
least 15 feet from the nearest window. The fresh-air 
inlet pipe usually terminates in a receptacle covered by 
an iron grating, and should be far from any hot-air fur- 



86 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION 

nace cold-air box. When clean, properly cared for, and 
extended above the ground, the fresh-air inlet, in con- 
junction with the open extended vertical pipe, is an 
efficient means of ventilating the air in the house-pipes ; 
unfortunately, most fresh-air inlets are constantly ob- 
structed, and do not serve the purpose for which they 
are made. 

The Soil- and Waste-pipes. — The soil-pipe receives 
liquid and solid sewage from the water-closets and 
urinals; the waste-pipe receives all waste water from 
sinks, wash-basins, bath-tubs, etc. 

The material of which the vertical soil- and waste- 
pipes are made is cast iron. 

The usual sizes of waste-pipes are 2 and 3 inches; of 
soil-pipes, 3 and 4 inches. No soil-pipe should be of 
greater diameter than 4 inches, except in very large 
buildings. 

The joints of the waste- and soil-pipes should be lead- 
calked. The connections of the lead branch pipes or 
traps with the vertical lines must be by Y- joints, and 
by means of brass ferrules, as explained above. 

The location of the vertical pipes must never be 
within the wall, built in, nor outside the house, but 
preferably in a special 3-foot square shaft adjacent to 
the fixtures, extending from the cellar to the roof, 
where the air-shaft should be covered by a louvered 
skylight; that is, with a skylight with slats outwardly 
inclined, so as to favor ventilation. 

The vertical pipes must be accessible, exposed to 
view in all their lengths, and, when covered with boards, 
so fitted that the boards may be readily removed. 



PLUMBISG-PIPES. 87 

Vertical pipes must be extended above the roof in 
full diameter, as previously stated. When less than 
4 inches in diameter, they must be enlarged to 4 inches 
at a point not less than 1 foot below the roof-surface 
by an u increaser " of not less than 9 inches long. 

All soil- and waste-pipes must, whenever necessary, 
be securely fastened with wrought-iron hooks or straps. 

Vertical soil- and waste-pipes must not be trapped at 
their base, as the trap would not serve any purpose, and 
would prevent a perfect flow of the contents. 

Branch Soil- and Waste-pipes. — The fixtures must 
be near the vertical soil- and waste-pipes in order that 
the branch waste- and soil-pipes should be as short as 
possible. The trap of the -branch soil- and waste-pipes 
must not be far from the fixture, not more than 2 feet 
from it, otherwise the accumulated foul air and slime in 
the waste- and soil-branch will emit bad odors. 

The minimum sizes for branch pipes should be as 
follows : 

Kitchen sinks 2 inches. 

Bath-tubs 1^ to 2 inches. 

Laundry-tubs 1-^ to 2 inches. 

AVater-closets not less than 4 inches. 

Branch soil- and waste-pipes must have a fall of 
at least J inch to 1 foot. 
The branch waste- and soil-pipes and traps must be 
exposed, accessible, and provided with screw-caps, etc., 
for inspection and cleaning purposes. 

Each fixture should be separately trapped as close to 
the fixture as possible, as two traps on the same line of 



88 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION 

branch waste- or soil-pipes will cause the air between the 
traps to be closed in, forming a so-called " cushion " that 
will prevent the ready flow of contents. 

" All traps must be well supported and rest true with 
respect to their water-level/' 

Vent-pipes and their Branches. — The purpose of 
vent-pipes, we have seen, is to prevent syphoning of 
traps and to ventilate the air in the traps and pipes. 
The material of which vent-pipes are made is cast iron. 

The size of vent-pipes depends on the number of traps 
with which they are connected; it is usually 2 or 3 
inches. The connection of the branch vent to the trap 
must be at the crown of the trap, and the connection of 
the branch vent to the main vent-pipe must be above the 
trap, so as to prevent friction of air. The vent-pipes are 
not perfectly vertical, but with a continuous slope so 
as to prevent condensation of air or vapor therein. 

The vent-pipes should be extended above the roof, 
several feet above coping, etc. ; and the extension above 
the roof should not be of less than 4 inches diameter, 
so as to avoid obstruction by frost. ~No return-bends or 
cowls should be tolerated on top of the vent-pipes. 
Sometimes the vent, instead of running above the roof, 
is connected with the soil-pipe several feet above all 
fixtures. 

Rain-leaders. — The rain-leader serves to collect the 
rain-water from the roof and eaves-gutter. It usually 
discharges its contents into the house-drain, although 
some leaders are led to the street-gutter, while others 
are connected with school-sinks in the yard. The lat- 
ter practice is objectionable^ as it may lead the foul air 



PL UMBING-PIPES. 8 9 

from the school-sink into the rooms, the windows of 
which are near the rain-leader; besides, the stirring up 
of the contents of the school-sink produces bad odors. 
"When the rain-leader is placed within the house, it must 
be made of cast iron with lead-calked joints; when 




Fig. 18. — Leader-pipe. 

outside, as is the rule, it may be of sheet metal or gal- 
vanized-iron pipe with soldered joints. When the rain- 
leader is run near windows,. the rules and practice are 
that it should be trapped at its base, the trap to be a 
deep one to prevent evaporation, and it should be placed 
several feet below the ground, so as to prevent freezing. 



OHAPTEE XI. . 
PLUMBING FIXTUKES. 

The receptacles or fixtures within the house for re- 
ceiving the waste and excrementitious matter and car- 
rying it off through the pipes to the sewer are very 
important parts of house-plumbing. Great care must 
be bestowed upon the construction, material, fitting, 
etc., of the plumbing fixtures, that they be a source of 
comfort in the house instead of becoming a curse to the 
occupants. 

Sinks. — The waste water from the kitchen is dis- 
posed of by means of sinks. Sinks are usually made of 
cast iron, painted, enamelled, or galvanized. They are 
also made of wrought iron, as well as of earthenware 
and porcelain. Sinks must be set level, and provided 
with a strainer at the outlet to prevent large particles of 
kitchen-refuse from being swept into the pipe and ob- 
struct it. If possible, the back and sides of a sink 
should be cast from one piece ; the back and sides, when 
of wood, should be covered by non-absorbent material, 
to prevent the wood from becoming saturated with 
waste water. ISTo woodwork should enclose sinks ; they 
should be supported on iron legs and be open beneath 
and around. The trap of a sink is usually 2 inches in 

90 



PLUMBIXG FIXTURES. 91 

diameter, and should be near the sink; it should have a 
screw-cap for cleaning and inspection, and the branch 
vent-pipe should be at the crown of the trap. 

Wash-basins. — Wash-basins are placed in bath- 
rooms, and, when properly constructed and fitted, are a 
source of comfort. They should not be located in bed- 
rooms, and should be open, without any woodwork 
around them. The wash-bowls are made of porcelain 
or marble, with a socket at the outlet, into which a plug 
is fitted. 

Wash-tubs. — For laundry purposes wooden, iron- 
enamelled, stone, and porcelain tubs are fitted in the 
kitchen or laundry-room. Porcelain is the best mate- 
rial, although very expensive. The soapstone tub is the 
next best ; it is clean, non-absorbent, and not too expen- 
sive. Wood should never be used, as it soon becomes 
saturated, is foul, leaks, and is offensive. In old houses, 
wherever there are wooden tubs, they should be cov- 
ered with zinc or some non-absorbent material. The 
wash-tubs are placed in pairs, sometimes three in a 
row, and they are generally connected with one lead 
waste-pipe 1^ to 2 inches in diameter, with one trap 
for all the tubs. 

Bath-tubs. — Bath-tubs are made of enamelled iron 
or porcelain, and should not be covered or enclosed by 
any woodwork. The branch waste-pipe should be 
trapped and connected with the main waste- or soil-pipe. 
The floor about the tub in the bathroom should be of 
non-absorbent material. 

Refrigerators. — The waste-pipes of refrigerators 
should not connect with any of the house-pipes, but 



92 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION 

should be emptied into a basin or pail; or, if the refrig- 
erator is large, its waste-pipe should be conducted to the 
cellar, where it should discharge into a properly- 
trapped, sewer-connected, water-supplied, open sink. 

Boilers. — The so-called sediment-pipe from the hot- 
water boiler in the kitchen should be connected with 
the sink-trap at the inlet side of the trap. 

Urinals. — As a rule, no urinals should be tolerated 
within a house; they are permissible only in factories 
and office buildings. The material is enamelled iron or 
porcelain. They must be provided with a proper water- 
supply to flush them. 

Overflows. — To guard against overflow of. wash- 
basins, bath-tubs, etc., overflow-pipes from the upper 
portion of the fixtures are commonly provided. These 
pipes are connected with the inlet side -of the trap of 
the same fixture. They are, however, liable -to become 
a nuisance by being obstructed with dirt and not being 
constantly flushed; whenever possible they should be 
dispensed with. 

Safes and Wastes. — A common usage with plumb- 
ers in the past has been to provide sinks, wash-basins, 
bath-tubs, and water-closets, not only with overflow- 
pipes, but also with so-called safes, which consist of 
sheets of lead turned up several inches at the edges so 
as to catch all drippings and overflow from fixtures; 
from these safes a drip-pipe or waste is conducted to 
the cellar, where it empties into a sink. Of course, 
when such safe-wastes are connected with the soil- or 
waste-pipes, they become a source of danger, even if 
they are trapped, as they are not properly cared for or 



PLU3IBING FIXTURES. 93 

flushed; and their traps are usually not sealed. Even 
when discharging into a sink in the cellar, safes and 
safe-waste are very unsightly, dirty, liable to accumu- 
late filth, and are offensive. With open plumbing, and 
with the floors under the fixtures of non-absorbent ma- 
terial, they are useless. 

Water-closets. — The most important plumbing fix- 
ture in the house is the water-closet. It is of the great- 
est importance that the water-closet be placed in a 
separate apartment, and not in the kitchen or any other 
room of the house. This apartment should be well 
lighted and ventilated. The most advanced regulations 
in this respect are the rules of the Tenement-house Law 
of New York (1901): 

" There shall be a separate water-closet in a separate compart- 
ment within each apartment. All water-closet compartments must 
have a window opening upon the street, yard, court, or vent-shaft. 
The floor of every water-closet compartment shall be made water- 
proof with asphalt, cement, tile, stone, metal or some other water- 
proof material; and such waterproofing shall extend at least six 
inches above the floor, so that the floor can be washed or flushed 
without leaking. No drip-tray shall be permitted. No water- 
closet fixture shall be enclosed with woodwork." 

There are many water-closets on the market, some 
bad, some indifferent, and some good. 

The pan closet. The water-closet most commonly 
used in former times was a representative of the group 
of water-closets with mechanical contrivances. This is 
the pan closet, now universally condemned and prohib- 
ited from further use. The pan closet consists of 4 
principal parts: 1) a basin, of china, small and round; 
2) a copper 6-inch pan under the basin; 3) a large iron 
container, into which the basin with the pan under it is 



94 



HANDBOOK OK SANITATION. 



placed; and 4) a D trap to which the container is joined. 
The pan is attached with a lever to a handle, which, 
when pulled, moves the pan, this describes a half circle 



JZ^~Z^£3^ 




Fig 19. — Pan Water-closet. 



and drops the contents into the container and trap. 
The objections to pan closets are the following: 

1) There being a number of parts, and mechanical 
contrivances, they are liable to get out of order. 

2) The bowl is set into the container and cannot be 
inspected, and is usually very dirty beneath. 

3) The pan is often missing, gets out of order, and is 
liable to be soiled by adhering excreta. 

4) The container is large, excreta adhere to its upper 
parts, and the iron becomes corroded and coated with 
filth. 

5) With every pull of the handle and pan, foul air 
enters rooms. 

6) The junctions between the bowl and container, 
and the container and trap, are usually not gas-tight. 



PLUMBIXG FIXTURES, 



9£ 



7) The pan breaks the force of the water flush, and 
the trap is usually not completely emptied. 

Valve and plunger closets are an improvement upon 
the pan closets, but are not free from several objec- 
tions enumerated above. As a rule, all water-closets 
with mechanical parts are objectionable. 

Hopper closets are made of iron or earthenware. Iron 




Fig. 20. — Long Hopper Water-closet. 



hopper closets easily corrode; they are usually enam- 
elled on the inside. Earthenware hoppers are prefer- 
able to iron ones. Hopper closets are either long or 
short; when long, they expose a very large surface to 
be fouled, require a trap below the floor and are, as a 
rule, very difficult to clean or to keep clean. Short 
hopper closets are preferable, as they are easily kept 
clean and are well flushed. When provided with flush- 
ing-! im, and with a good water-supply cistern and large 



96 



HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 



supply-pipe, the short hopper closet is a good form of 
water-closet. 

The washout and washdown water-closets are an im- 
provement upon the hopper closets. They are manu- 
factured from earthenware or porcelain, and are so 




Fig. 21. — Short Hopper Water-closet. 



shaped that they contain a water-seal, obviating the ne- 
cessity of a separate trap under the closet. 

Cisterns. Water-closets must not be flushed directly 
from the water-supply pipes, as there is a possibility of 
contaminating the water-supply. Water-closets should 
be flushed from special cisterns, either of iron or of 
wood metal lined; these cisterns should be placed not 
less than 4 feet above the water-closet, and provided 
with a straight flush-pipe of at least 1^ in. diameter. 

The cistern is fitted with plug and handle, so that 
by pulling at the handle the plug is lifted out of the 



PLUMBING FIXTURES. 



9V 




Copyright by the J. L. Mott Iron Works. 

Fig. 22.— Washout Water closet. 




Copyright by ueJ.L. _J.ott Iron Works. 

Fig. 23 — Washdown Water-closet. 



98 



HANDBOOK OK SANITATION. 



socket of the cistern and the contents permitted to rush 
through the pipe and flush the water-closet. A separate 
ball arrangement is made for closing the water-supply 
when the cistern is full. The cistern must have a ca- 
pacity of at least 3-5 gallons of water; the flash-pipe 




C °Pyri>ht by the J, 



Fig. 24. — Flushing Cistern. 



must have a diameter of not less than one and one-quar- 
ter inch, and the pipe must be straight, without bends, 
and the arrangement within the closets such as to flush 
all parts of the bowl at the same time. 

Yard Closets. — In many old houses the water-closet 
accommodations are placed in the yard. There are two 
forms of these yard closets commonly used; the School- 
sink and the Yard Hopper. 

The school-sink is an iron trough from 5 to 12 or 
more feet long, and 1 to 2 feet wide and 1 foot deep, set 
in a trench several feet below the surface, with an inclin- 



PLUMBING FIXTURES. 



99 



ation toward the exit; on one end of the trough there 
is a socket fitted with a plug, and on the other a flushing 
apparatus consisting simply of a water service-pipe. 



*MM tffyg-fa 




Fig. 25. — School sink after Several Months' Use. 

(J. Sullivan) 

Above the iron trough brick walls are built up, enclos- 
ing it; over it are placed wooden seats, and surround- 
ing the whole is a wot>tien shed with cotnpartraents fox* 
LofC. 



100 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

every seat. The excreta are allowed to fall into the 
trough, which is partly filled with water, and once a 
day, or as often as the caretaker chooses, the plug is 
pulled up and the excreta allowed to flow into the 
sewer with which the school-sink is connected. These 
school-sinks are, as a rule, a nuisance, and are dangerous 
to health. The objections to them are the following : 

1) The excreta lies exposed in the iron trough, and 
may decompose even in one day; and it is always offen- 
sive. 

2) The iron trough is easily corroded. 

3) The iron trough, being large, presents a large sur- 
face for adherence of excreta. 

4) The brickwork above the trough is not flushed 
when the school-sink is emptied, and excreta which usu- 
ally adheres to it decomposes, creating offensive odors. 

5) The junction of the iron trough wifh the brick- 
work, and the brickwork itself, is usually defective, or 
becomes defective, and allows foul water and sewage to 
pass into the yard, or into the wall adjacent to the 
school-sink. By the Tenement-house Law of New 
York, after 1903 the use of school-sinks is prohibited 
even in old buildings. 

Yard hopper closets. Where the water-closet ac- 
commodations cannot, for some reason, be put within 
the house, yard hopper closets are commonly employed. 
These closets are simply long, iron enamelled hoppers, 
trapped, and connected with a drain-pipe discharging 
into the house-drain. These closets are flushed from 
cisterns, but, in such case, the cisterns must be pro- 
tected from freezing; this is accomplished in some 



PLUMBING FIXTURES. 



101 



houses bj putting the yard hopper near the house and 
placing the cistern within the house; however, this can 
hardly be done where several hoppers must be employed. 
In most cases, yard hoppers are flushed by automatic 




Fig. 26. — J. Sullivan's Improved Yard Hopper Closet. 



rod-valves, so constructed as to flush the bowl of the 
hopper whenever the seat it pressed upon. These valves, 
as a rule, frequently get out of order and leak, and care 



102 



HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 




Fig. 27.— A Modern Water- closet. (L. J. Mott Iron Works.; 



PLUMBING FIXTURES. 103 

must be taken to construct the vault under the hoppers 
so that it be perfectly water-tight. The cut on page 101 
represents an improved form of yard hopper suggested 
by Inspector J. Sullivan, of the New York Health De- 
partment, and used in a number of places with complete 
satisfaction. The improvement consists in the doors 
and walls of the privy apartment being of double thick- 
ness, lined with builders' lining on the inside, and the 
water-service pipes and cistern being protected by felt 
or mineral wool packing. 

Yard- and Area-drains. — The draining of the surface 
of the yard or other areas is done by tile or iron pipes 
connecting with the sewer or house-drain. Every such 
drain should be trapped, not with a bell- or a lip-trap, but 
by a common syphon ; or, better, the gully and trap are 
made of one piece. 



CHAPTER XII. 

DEFECTS IN" PLUMBING; EXAMINATION AND 

TESTS. 

The materials used in house-plumbing are many and 
various, the parts are very numerous, the joints and con- 
nections are frequent, the position and location of pipes, 
etc., are often inaccessible and hidden, and the whole 
system quite complicated. Moreover, no part of the 
house construction is subjected to so many strains and 
uses, as well as abuses, as the plumbing^ of the house. 
Hence, in no part of house construction can there be as 
much bad work and " scamping " done as in the plumb- 
ing; and no part of the house is liable to have so many 
defects in construction, maintenance, and condition as 
the plumbing. At the same time, the plumbing of a 
house is of very great importance and influence on the 
health of the tenants, for defective materials, bad work- 
manship and improper condition of the plumbing of a 
house may endanger the lives of its inhabitants by caus- 
ing various diseases. 

Defects in Plumbing. — The defects usually found in 
plumbing are so many that they cannot all be enumer- 
ated here. Among the principal and most common de- 
fects, however ; are the following: 

104 



DEFECTS IN PLUMBING, 105 

Materials. Light-weight iron pipes ; these crack eas- 
ily and cannot stand the strain of calking. Sandholes 
made during casting; these cannot always be detected, 
especially when the pipes are tar-coated. Thin lead 
pipe, not heavy enough to withstand the bending and 
drawing it is subjected to. 

Location dad Position. Pipes may be located within 
the walls and built in, in which case they are inacces- 
sible, and may be defective without any one being able 
to discover the defects. Pipes may be laid with a wrong 
or an insufficient fall, thus leaving them unflushed, or 
retarding the proper velocity of the flow in the pipes. 
Pipes may be put underground and have no support 
underneath, when some parts or lengths may sink, get 
out of joint and the sewage run into the ground instead 
of through the pipes. The pipes may be so located as to 
require sharp bends and curves, which will retard the 
flow in them. 

Joints. Joints in pipe3 may be defective, leaking 
and not gas-tight, because of imperfect calking, insuffi- 
cient lead having been used; or, no oakum having been 
used and the lead running into the lumen of the pipe; or, 
not sufficient care and time being taken for the work. 
Joints may be defective because of iron ferrules being 
used instead of brass ferrules ; through improperly wiped 
joints; through bad workmanship, bad material, or igno- 
rance of the plumber. Plumbers often use T branches 
instead of Y branches ; sharp bends instead of bends of 
45 degrees or more; slip joints instead of lead-calked 
ones; also, they often connect a pipe of larger diameter 
with a pipe of small diameter, etc., etc, - 



106 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

Traps. The traps may be bad in principle and in 
construction; they may be badly situated or connected, 
or they may be easily unsealed, frequently obstructed, 
inaccessible, foul, etc. 

Ventilation. The house-drain may have no fresh-air 
inlet, or the fresh-air inlet may be obstructed; the vent- 
pipes may be absent, or obstructed; the vertical pipes 
may not be extended. 

Condition. Pipes may have holes, may be badly re- 
paired, bent, out of shape, or have holes patched up with 
cement or putty; pipes may be corroded, gnawed by 
rats, or they may be obstructed, etc., etc. 

The above are only a few of the many defects that 
may be found in the plumbing of a house. It is, there- 
fore, of paramount importance to have the house-plumb- 
ing regularly, frequently, and thoroughly examined and 
inspected, as well as put to the various tests, so as to 
discover the defects and remedy them. 

Plumbing Tests. — The following are a few minor 
points for testing plumbing: 

1) To test a trap with a view to finding out whether 
its seal is lost or not, knock on the trap with a piece of 
metal; if the trap is empty, a hollow sound will be given 
out ; if full, the sound will be dull. This is not reliable 
in case the trap is full or half -full with slime, etc. An- 
other test for the same purpose is as follows : Hold a 
light near the outlet of the fixture ; if the light is drawn 
in, it is a sign that the trap is empty. 

2) Defects in leaded joints can be detected if white 
lead has been used, as it will be discolored in case sewer- 
gas escape from the joints. 



DEFECTS IX PLUMBING, 107 

3) The connection of a waste-pipe of a bath-tub with 
the trap of the water-closet can sometimes be discovered 
by suddenly emptying the bath-tub and watching the 
contents of the water-closet trap; the latter will be agi- 
tated if the waste-pipe is discharged into the trap or on 
the inlet side of trap of the water-closet. 

4) The presence of sewer-gas in a room can be de- 
tected by the following chemical method: Saturate a 
piece of unglazed paper with a solution of acetate of 
lead in rain or boiled water, in the proportion of 1 to 8 ; 
allow the paper to dry and hang up in the room where 
the escape of sewer-gas is suspected; if sewer-gas is 
present, the paper will be completely blackened. 

The main tests for plumbing are: 1) The Hy- 
draulic, or water-pressure test; 2) the Smoke, or sight 
test; and 3) the Scent, or peppermint, etc., test. 

The Water-pressure Test is used to test the vertical 
and horizontal pipes in new plumbing before the fix- 
tures have been connected. It is applied as follows: 
The end of the house-drain is plugged up with a proper 
air-tight plug, of which there are a number on the 
market. The pipes are then filled with water to a cer- 
tain level, which is carefully noted. The water is allowed 
to stand in the pipes for half an hour, at the expiration 
of which time, if the joints show no sign of leakage, and 
are not sweating, and if the level of the water in the 
pipes has not fallen, the pipes are water-tight. This is a 
very reliable test, and is made obligatory for testing all 
new plumbing work. 

The Smoke Test is also a very good test. It is applied 



108 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION 

as follows: By means of .bellows, or some explod- 
ing, smoke-producing rocket, smoke is forced into 
the system of pipes, the ends plugged up, and the escape 
of the smoke watched for, as wherever there are de- 
fects in the pipes the smoke will appear. A number of 
special appliances for this test are manufactured, all of 
them more or less ingenious. 

The Scent Test is made by putting into the pipes a 
certain quantity of some pungent chemical, like pepper- 
mint-oil, etc., the odor of which will escape from the de- 
fects in the pipes if there are any. Oil of peppermint is 
commonly used in this country for the test. The fol- 
lowing is the way this test is applied: All the openings 
of the pipes on roof, except one, are closed up tightly 
with paper, rags, etc. Into the one open pipe is 
poured from 2 to 4 ounces of peppermint-oil, fol- 
lowed by a pail of hot water, and then the pipe into 
which the oil has been put is also plugged up. This 
is done preferably by an assistant. The inspector then 
proceeds to slowly follow the course of the various 
pipes, and will detect the smell of the oil wherever it 
may escape from any defects in the pipes. If the test 
is thoroughly and carefully done, if care is taken that 
no fixture in the house is used and the traps of same 
not disturbed during the test, if the openings of the 
pipes on the roofs are plugged up tightly, if the main 
house-trap is not unsealed (otherwise the oil will escape 
into the sewer), and if the handling of the oil has been ' 
done bv an assistant, so that none adheres to the inspec- 
tor; if all these conditions are carried out, the pepper- 



DEFECTS IN PLUMBING. 109 

mint test is a mou valuable test for the detection of any 
and all defects in plumbing. Another precaution to be 
taken is with regard to the rain-leader. If the rain- 
leader is not trapped, or if its trap is empty, the pepper- 
mint-oil may escape from the pipes into the rain-leader. 
Care must be taken, therefore, that the trap at the base 
of the rain-leader be»sealed; or, if no. trap is existing, to 
close up the connection of the rain-leader with the 
house-drain; or, if this be impossible, to plug up the 
opening of the leader near the roof. 

Instead of putting the oil into the opening of a pipe 
on the roof, it may be put through a fixture on the 
top floor of the house, although this is not so satisfac- 
tory. 

Various appliances have been manufactured to make 
this test more easy and accurate. Of the English 
appliances, the Banner patent drain-grenade, and 
Kemp's drain-tester are worthy of mention. The former 
consists " of a thin glass vial charged with pungent and 
volatile chemicals. One of the grenades, when dropped 
down any suitable pipe, such as the soil-pipe, breaks, or 
the grenade may be inserted through a trap into the 
drain, where it is exploded." (Taylor.) Kemp's drain- 
tester consists of a glass tube containing a chemical 
with a strong odor; the tube is fitted with a glass cover, 
Tield in place by a spring and a paper band. When the 
tester is thrown into the pipes and hot water poured 
after it, the paper band breaks, the spring opens the 
cover, and the contents of the tube fall into the drain. 

Recently Dr. W. Gr. Hudson, an inspector in the Do- 



110 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

partment of Health of New York, has invented a very 
ingenious " peppermint cartridge " for testing plumb- 
ing. The invention is, however, not yet manufactured, 
and is not on the market. 



PART SECOND. 
SANITARY PRACTICE. 



CHAPTER I. 
THE TENEMENT-HOUSE PEOBLEM. 

"Man, in constructing protection from exposure, has constructed 
conditions of disease. In an age- when he could not foresee the 
results of his own work, he created these conditions, and it is not 
fair to blame him, because he did not, in his primitive days, know 
better. We do know better now, and it is our fault if we do not 
improve on the original bad work, rectify it and remove intelligently 
the evils which, from deficient intelligence, have been so long per- 
petuated. This should be the uniform object of the sanitary scholar. 
The intention (and object) of domestic sanitation is so to construct 
homes for human beings, or, if the homes be constructed, so to im- 
prove them, that the various diseases and ailments incident to bad 
construction may be removed to the fullest possible extent." 

Benjamin W. Richardson, in Health in the Home. 

The above words of Dr. Richardson are the quin- 
tessence of the tenement-house problem and its solution. 

In ignorance, in folly, and in carelessness, society had 
permitted certain conditions to exist and be perpetu- 
ated; conditions vitally affecting life and health, and 
which have been allowed to become a fearful menace to 
social prosperity. 

Ill 



112 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

In the relentless march of industrial progress and 
the fierce struggle for commercial superiority, modern 
cities have developed evils which threaten to undermine 
the very existence of urban life, and have created con- 
ditions which threaten to cause the extinction of these, 
cities by depopulating them through disease and plague, 
due to defective sanitation. 

Owing to various causes, a very large proportion (in 
'New York State 71%, according to the last census) of 
the population of the country is concentrated in cities; 
a great part of the city inhabitants is herded in small, 
confined areas; the majority of the urban population is 
compelled to crowd into the vast barrack-like structures 
called tenements, defective in construction, unsanitary 
in drainage, faulty in condition, and lacking in light, 
air, and water — the three essentials of life. 

These conditions cause the large average mortality 
of cities, the fearful slaughter of innocent infants and 
children, the dwarfing of the constitutions of the grow- 
ing generation, the spreading of infection and conta- 
gion, the degenerating of the intellectual and the cor- 
rupting of the moral life of the community. 

The houses men live in bear an intimate relation 
with soil, light, air, w 7 ater, and drainage; and the 
influence of these upon health has already been spoken 
of. Moreover, the construction of houses, overcrowd- 
ing, and the density of population, have each a direct 
influence on man's health and longevity. 

Tuberculosis, the scourge of nations, is a disease of 
over-crowded tenements; typhoid fever is a disease of 
defective drainage; the diarrhoeas from which so many 



THE TENEMEXT-lIOUSE PROBLEM. 113 

thousands of babies die every summer are tenement- 
liouse diseases. Rheumatism is a disease of damp 
and dark dwellings; smallpox, scarlet fever, and other 
human plagues spread like wildfire in crowded, ill- 
constructed, ill-ventilated, badly-lighted, and miserable 
tenement districts. 

There are blocks in Xew York City with one thou- 
sand human beings to the square acre. There are blocks 
solidly built upon, with not more than 10% space left 
for air and light. There are barracks (miscalled houses) 
in which not less than 36 families make their home. 
There are floors in 25 X 100-lot houses with 6 families 
to a floor. There are apartments of 2 or 3 rooms each, 
containing 10 to 15 persons. 

"Where there is such density of population, there 
cannot be sufficient light, air, or breathing space; hence 
the sanitary conditions are often horrible beyond de- 
scription, and the moral pollution vile beyond men- 
tion. 

Here are a few figures from statistics on the influ- 
ence of dwellings upon health. 

Dr. Farr gives the following on mortality and density 
of population (hotter and Firth) : 



86 people 


to the square mile . 


. . 14 in 1000 


172 " 


(i U iC u 


. . 17 " " 


255 " 


a a u u 


. . 20 " " 


1128 " 


a u a a 


. . 23 " " 


3399 " 


u u a a 


. . 26 " " 



Dr. Anderson, Medical Officer of Dundee, gives the 
following figures on the comparative death-rates of 



114: HANDBOOK ON SANITATION 

inhabitants of one-, two-, three-, and four-room apart- 
ments (Dr. Sykes, Brit. Med. Jour.) : 

One-room apartments. . . . 21.4 in 1000 

Two-room " .... 18.8." " 

Three-room " .... 17.2 " " 

Four-room " 12.3 " " 

According to the 'New York Tenement Report of 
1894, the death-rate in New York in the First Ward 
in single houses on one lot was 29.03; and in lots 
where there were front and rear houses the death-rate 
reached 61.97 ! In the same ward the death-rate of 
children under 5 years of age reached, in the former, 
109.58, and in the latter the terrible rate of 204.55 in 
a thousand ! It is hardly necessary to cite more figures 
to prove that overcrowding and high death-rate walk 
hand in hand. 

The tenement-house is an offspring of municipal neg- 
lect, of overcrowding in small areas, of industrial ex- 
pansion, of commercial encroachment, of poverty and 
destitution, of deficient transportation, and of the ne- 
cessity of the working classes to dwell near their in- 
dustrial occupations. 

Originally, the tenement-houses consisted of former 
private dwellings, whose occupants, being crowded out 
by commerce and manufacture, left them and moved 
into less crowded locations, leaving their houses to be 
occupied by the less fortunate, who were compelled to 
remain near their work. As population pressed on, 
these spacious houses were divided and sub-divided 
without any control or regard to light and ventilation; 



THE TENEMENT-HOUSE PROBLEM. 115 

hence, many apartments were soon overfilled, and 
the demand for such, homes induced the wide-awake . 
real-estate men to build houses expressly for poor ten- 
ants. That these buildings were constructed with no 
regard for proper sanitation, etc., goes without say- 
ing; for in those times there were no restricting laws, 
and every builder and speculator constructed houses 
with the sole idea of the number of families that could 
possibly be crowded in, and the largest amount of rent 
that could possibly be gotten out of them. 

It was then that the cry of the philanthropists went 
up {vide first report of the " Committee on Housing " 
of the Association for the Improvement of the Poor, 
1853): " Pure air, light, and water, being indispensable 
to health and life, if tenements are so badly constructed 
as to preclude a proper supply of these essential ele- 
ments, the law should interpose for the protection of 
the sufferers, and either close up such dwellings, or 
cause them to be remodelled so as to be fit for human 
habitations." 

But for a long, a very long time, this was only 
a cry in the wilderness, and tenements continued 
to spring up without regard to the " essential elements." 
At last, in the middle seventies, a law was passed by the 
State legislature restricting uncontrolled tenement con- 
struction, and from that time onward progressive 
changes and laws were made in behalf of tenement im- 
provement; not, however, without various selfish inter- 
ests interposing hindrances, objecting to the so-called 
tyrannical socialistic tendencies of tenement legislation, 
and doing all possible to counteract the growing ten- 



116 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

dency for tenement reform. But, in spite of all these, 
tlie better elements of society have gained the upper 
hand, and the evils of unsanitary tenements have been 
curtailed in many cities, and especially in New York, 
by the wise and beneficent laws of 1887, 1895, and by 
the last and crowning model tenement-house law of 
1901. 

Hand in hand with those beneficial laws are the pro- 
visions for their enforcement by the proper municipal 
departments. 

The proper solution of the tenement-house problem 
is, therefore: Legislation, Restriction, Strict Super- 
vision, Careful Inspection, Constant Vigilance and the 
rigid and impartial enforcement of all existing laws now 
on the statute books; and last, though not least, the incul- 
cating of habits of personal cleanliness among the 
masses of the foreign population, who ^constitute so 
large a proportion of tenement-house dwellers; for 
there is no doubt that lazy, indolent, dirty, ignorant or 
malicious tenants often are as much responsible for the 
unsanitary conditions existing in tenements as are in- 
different, grasping owners or lessees. 



CHAPTER II. 
TENEMENT-HOUSES. 

Classes. — There are several classes of tenements, 
according to their construction, tenants, plumbing, etc. 

The definition of " tenement " is as follows (Sec. 2, 
T. H. L.): 

" A tenement-house is any house or building, or portion thereof, 
which is rented, leased, 'let or hired out, to be occupied as the 
home or residence of three families or more living independently 
of each other, and doing their cooking upon the premises, or by 
more than two families upon one floor, so living and cooking, but 
having a common right in the halls, stairways, yards, water- 
closets or privies, or some of them." 

Tinder this heading are included all houses having 
three families or more; therefore, the so-called " flats " 
and apartment-houses are tenement-houses in the eyes 
of the law. A classification, according to the monthly 
rents of the tenants, has been made by the law (wher- 
ever the law, or tenement-law, etc., are mentioned, 
the Xew York tenement-house law is meant); thus, 
houses, the apartments of which average a monthly 
rental of more than $25, are not required to be in- 
spected every month, as are other tenements. 

The cheaper tenement-houses are different in con- 

117 



118 HANDBOOK ON SANITATIO 

TYPES OF TENEMENT-HOUSES. 




LIVING ROOM 



BED 





-J 

< 

I 


BED 







ROOM 




= 








BED 




BED 






ROOM 




ROOM 



YARD 



BED 
ROOM 



BED 
ROOM 



BED 
ROOM 



BED 
ROOM 



Fig. 28. 
1. Front and rear house 2. Type of tenement- 
on one lot. house without light 

or ventilation, except 
in outer rooms. 
(From Report of the Tenement-house Commjssion, 1894) 



TENEMENT-HO USES. 119 

TYPES OF TENEMENT-HOUSES. 



YARD 




BED 
ROOM 



LIVING ROOM 



/ SINK 





1 


YARD 






LIVING ROOM 








A 






— -f 


'- — 






BED ROOM 


















BED ROOM 








1>- 


-r 


c 


> 


J-T 


L- 


I 


I 

4 


BED p 
ROOM 


^ 






— n 


■ ^SINK 








— 






BED zz: 


-I 
< 
X 




ROOM ZZZ 




Tl — 






ih ■ = 


•£ 




-J u 






L 


—. 






BED ROOM 








— - 


- — 






BED ROOM 








— — - k 


< — — 






1 








LIVING ROOM 





Fig. 28. 
3. Tvpe of tenement, 4. Tvm'cmI double decker 
showing: introduction of of the old style cover- 

light shaft. ing 90 per cent of the 

lot. 
(From Report of the Tenement-house Commission, 1894.) 



120 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

TYPES OF TENEMENT-HOUSES. 



1 






YARD 






1 mill 

1 FIRE E 


nun 

SCAPE 1 






I LIVING 

11; 


PARLOR 










1 

1 


BED ROOM 1 


BED ROOM |] 


i 


— -L 

< 

■ z 

1 BE D 1 


i tmmmmmmm 






LIVING 






B ROOM 1 


ROOM J 


I 






d El & 

i loll o 
.8 


o M 
o m 




j 














I LIVING 1 


1 LIVING tt 




| ROOM 1 

■ _i 

—I 1 


- ROOM j 






■ Maammmam 




j 


BED ROOM 1 

I 


BED ROOM ll 1 




J 

PARLOR 


PARLOR I 


1 







K- 25 0~ 

i 




f 25 

Fig. 28. 
5 and 6. Improved tenement-bouses after 1879. 

(From Report of the Tenement-house Commission, 1894.) 



TENEMENT-HO USES. 121 

struction, according to their age and the laws under 
which they were constructed. Hence the variety in 
tenement-house construction, as seen in the floor-plans 
of the principal classes of these buildings. 

Tenements may be classified also according to their 
plumbing: such as houses without plumbing at all; 
houses with water service and sinks in halls only; houses 
with sinks in rooms and privy accommodations in halls, 
and houses with both within the apartments. 

Sites. — Tenement-house dwellers can hardly choose 
the site upon which the house they live in is situated. 
The same conditions which cause the laboring man to 
live in overcrowded portions of the city, also compel 
him to live in certain streets, blocks and houses, with- 
out regard to the sanitary conditions of the site — prox- 
imity to his work and the amount of rent he is able to 
pay being the determining factors. The ground upon 
which the house is situated has a great influence on 
the health of the occupant, but the tenant is com- 
pelled to take what is offered without any choice on 
his part. Houses built upon made land and upon marshy 
soil are, as a rule, damp and unhealthy. Cities with 
river fronts have shores which are usually low, hence a 
certain part of the city ground formerly covered by 
water may have been regained by being filled in with 
rubbish and refuse. Houses on such land are usually 
damp, unless the most scientific precautions have been 
taken during their construction; but, as this is seldom 
the case, and, as in a great many, if not most, of these 
houses, the cellars are not concreted, it follows that 
they are damp, and at times full of water. Certain 



122 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION 

streets in New York City, such as: South, Water, 
Front, Cherry, Broad, West, Washington, Greenwich 
(partly), Tenth and Eleventh Avenues, Lewis, Goereck, 
Mangin, etc., are wholly or partly on made ground; and 
a great many other places were originally marsh land 
and watercourses subsequently filled in. That houses 
built on these sites cannot be as healthy as those built 
upon rocky or upon meadow land, is obvious. 

Construction. — The proper construction, that is, the 
masonry, carpentry, and brickwork, etc., of the tene- 
ment-house is important, but as a great many, if not the 
majority, of tenements are built by speculators, good 
workmanship cannot be expected, and the houses are 
damp, with walls cracking, ceilings peeling and falling, 
roofs leaking, plumbing out'of order, etc. 

Percentage "of Lot Occupied. — The common 25 X 
100-ft. New York lot is, as a rule, well built upon, only 
so much of it being left as is absolutely demanded by 
law. The 1901 law prescribes that only 70% of an 
ordinary lot and 90% of a corner lot may be built upon. 

Protection against Fire. — The law (see Part 4) 
contains some model and progressive points in this direc- 
tion. An important condition mentioned therein is the 
number, position, and condition of the fire-escapes. 

Warming. — The cheaper classes of tenements have 
no heating arrangements for the whole house, each 
apartment being heated by stoves or ranges belonging to 
the tenant or landlord. As the apartments are of three 
or four rooms, commonly in one row, with the stoves 
situated in the kitchen, the result is that the rooms are 
disproportionately heated, the kitchen being super- 



TEXEMENT-HO USES. 123 

heated, and the rest of the rooms too cold, necessitating 
their being closed up in "winter. The better class of 
houses have hot-water or steam heating, either for the 
halls alone or for the rooms as well. A nuisance often 
complained of with regard to steam heating is the noise 
(water-hammer) made by air and water lodged in pipes. 
This difficulty is obviated by having the flow- and the 
return-pipes carried in as direct a line as possible, and 
having the coils on the return-pipes. 

Lighting. — Excepting corner houses, most tene- 
ments get their light only from their street side, the 
rear being obstructed by the houses on the adjacent lots 
of the next street, the intervening space being filled 
with washlines and drying clothes. The kitchen and 
bedrooms are commonly lighted by air-shafts and courts, 
w r hich give only a dim light, and that only for the 
apartments in the upper stories. The halls are lighted 
by skylights, and a great many houses have no 
other light in the halls, as the number of tenements 
with windows on halls, shafts, etc., is not as yet 
in the majority. Some old houses have entirely dark 
halls, and it is in those houses, as a rule, that the sinks 
are in the halls and are used in common by the four 
families on the floor. The artificial light commonly 
used in halls is illuminating gas, although there are yet 
a number of houses which have not even this improve- 
ment. The illuminating-gas pipes are sometimes a 
source of nuisance by leakage therefrom. The defects 
should be immediately repaired. 

Ventilation. — No special provision is made for ven- 
tilating tenement-houses, the windows, doors, and chim- 



124 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION 

neys serving as the natural means of tenement venti- 
lation. There are a number of houses where there 
are rooms that have no windows whatever except 
those opening into the adjacent room. However, the 
day of these houses and rooms has passed, and the law 
at present requires that every room must have windows 
of certain dimensions exposed to the outer air. Cellars 
are ventilated by windows, gratings, and doors. Water- 
closet apartments need good ventilation, but many of 
these apartments in old houses are not ventilated 
at all, or have a makeshift of a narrow sheet-metal tube 
12 inches square — an outlet entirely inadequate for 
the purpose. The law now compels owners to ventilate 
water-closet apartments by windows of ample dimen- 
sions, and these apartments must have a certain area- 
space, a requirement not heretofore enforced. The 
areas of yards, courts, air-shafts, etc., have all been 
increased by the law with a view to improving the 
ventilation of tenements. The ventilation of rooms 
depends on their size (floor area) and cubic feet of air- 
space. If the rooms are too small, or are overcrowded, 
no natural change of air, sufficient to clear the confined 
space from the impurities due to respiration, is pos- 
sible. 

"In every tenement-house hereafter erected, all rooms except 
water-closet and bath apartments shall have the following sizes: 
In each apartment there shall be at least one room containing at 
least 120 square feet of floor area, and each other apartment 
shall contain at least 70 square feet of floor-space. Each room 
shall be in every part not less than 9 feet high. ... No room 
which does not open with a window into the street, yard, or 
shaft of at least 25 square feet in area, shall be occupied, unless 



TEXEMEXT-HO USES. 125 

such room contains at least GO square feet of floor-space, and also 
600 cubic feet of air-space, and no such room shall be occupied 
unless there are 600 cubic feet of air to each individual occupy- 
ing it" 

These provisions of the law, although they do not 
solve the problem of ventilation of tenements, are in 
the right direction, and will do much to alleviate the 
sufferings of the tenement-dweller gasping for air. 

Water-supply. — Owners of houses are compelled to 
furnish an adequate supply of water for all domestic 
purposes, and each and every floor must be provided 
with proper fixtures to distribute it. In some old 
houses the main water-service pipe, originally intended 
for one family, is made to serve for a number of fam- 
ilies, and is inadequate, not being sufficient to supply 
water to the upper floors. The remedy is a water-pipe of 
larger size. In houses of 4 or more stories the ordinary 
street pressure is not sufficient to raise the water to the 
upper floors, and it is then necessary to instal gas, gas- 
oline or steam-engines to pump water into tanks above 
the highest floor, from whence it is supplied to the 
upper floors. These tanks may become a source of 
nuisance, as they may leak and cause dampness of ceil- 
ings of the upper story, or furnish dirty water from sedi- 
ments and dirt gaining access thereto. Tanks should 
be properly constructed, water-tight, well covered, ac- 
cessible, easily cleaned, and frequently emptied, 
scrubbed and cleaned. The overflow from the tank 
must not discharge into the rain-leader, or into other 
house-pipes, but should be led clown into the cellar to 
discharge into a sink. The washers on the water-fau- 
cets must be renewed once in a while to prevent leakage. 



126 HANDBOOK OK SANITATION. 

Plumbing.— The plumbing of a tenement-house 
does not differ from the house-plumbing described in 
the first part ; except in so far as the tenement-houses 
are built for poor people and all the materials, plumb- 
ing included, are of inferior grades, and the workman- 
ship cheaper and inferior. 

One of the most dangerous defects in tenement- 
house plumbing is the old brick or earthenware house- 
drains. These drains are too large, laid without any 
fall, and situated underground, with the joints unsup- 
ported and broken, and with great holes here and there 
— the whole a channel of indescribable filth, giving off 
miasmatic effluvia, saturating the cellar-ground with 
liquid sewage, poisoning the air in cellar and house, and 
causing disease and pestilence. Whenever such drains 
are found they should be ordered out, as-jeven the best 
of them are not without danger, and the law now pro- 
hibits any but extra heavy iron pipe-drains in houses. 
There is scarcely an earthenware house-drain that will 
stand a properly applied test. 

The iron house-drains in tenements are often under- 
ground, owing to the presence of fixtures in the cellar; 
in such a case an examination of the house-drain is not 
possible without a test. Plumbers in cleaning house- 
drains of obstructions are in the habit of leaving open 
holes in the drains, or, if they take the trouble to close 
the holes, they do so with sheet-metal, putty, or cement, 
or sometimes with only a rag tied around the pipe. 
These openings are a means of escape for sewer-air. 
They should be closed gas-tight with iron bands, patent 
saddle-hubs, or screw-nuts. The covers of the handholes 



TEXEMEXT-HO USES. 127 

of traps on house-drains should be gas-tight adjusted. 
Very frequently there will be found connected with the 
house-drain the overflow pipes from refrigerators, roof- 
tanks, waste-pipes from stores, pressure-pumps from 
beer-saloons, etc. All such pipes must be disconnected 
from the house-drain, the opening at the disconnected 
place closed gas-tight, and the waste-pipes made to dis- 
charge into a sewer-connected, properly-trapped, water- 
supplied open sink. 

Sinks and w T ater-closets are often found in cellars, 
and, apart from the fact that such fixtures ought never 
to have been put there, they are hardly ever used, and 
their seals have evaporated, allowing sewer-gas to enter 
the cellar through the empty trap. Such disused fix- 
tures should be removed and disconnected. 

Traps of fixtures are not yet vented in every house, 
hence syphonage is rather a common occurrence. The 
soil- and main waste-pipes are not always extended above 
the roof, and, when extended, are often fitted with re- 
turn-bends and cowls. A common defect in tenement- 
house plumbing is the improper joint-connection of 
pipes, putty and cement joints being frequent. In some 
houses the traps are of quite an antiquated form, bottle 
and other old traps being occasionally found. Holes in 
traps, in waste-pipes, and in all other pipes, abound, 
and are either left open or are ^losed with putty, dough, 
or rags. The sinks have woodwork enclosing them be- 
neath and around, the spaces within such enclosures 
being exceedingly foul and filthy; as have also water- 
closets, which are the most abused fixtures in the house. 
So many people use, so many more abuse, and so few 



128 HANDBOOK OK SANITATION 

clean, them, it is no wonder at all that water-closets are 
masses of filth and that they poison the air. In some 
houses the water-closets are situated in cellars. Of the 
school-sinks I have already spoken. The long Philadel- 
phia hopper closets, those especially with a spiral flush, 
are a nuisance, as they are never clean, nor well flushed. 
Pan closets are not so frequent in tenements, thanks 
to sanitary inspectors, who order them out as soon as 
they discover them. 

There are a great many ways in which plumbing may 
be defective, as we have seen in Part I., and the only 
remedy is to be constantly on guard, inspect the plumb- 
ing frequently, and have it put in proper condition by 
licensed plumbers. 

Cellars. — The cellar of a tenement-house is an im- 
portant adjunct, and the location of a great many nui- 
sances, some of which have been already mentioned. 
Formerly basements and cellars were terms often in- 
terchangeable; the law now makes a distinction, how- 
ever, and defines both as follows: 

" A basement is a story partly but not more than one-half be- 
low the level of the curb." 

"A cellar is a story more than one-half below the level of the 
curb." 

The other points of the law in regard to cellars are 
as follows: 

" The floor of the cellar, or lowest floor of every tenement-house, 
shall be water-tight, and the cellar ceilings shall be plastered. The 
cellar walls and ceilings shall be thoroughly whitewashed or 
painted a light color by the owner at least once a year." 



TENEMENT-HO USES. 129 

Cellars, as a rule, ought not to be occupied for living 
or sleeping purposes, although a great many of them 
are. The conditions for living in cellars are defined by 
the law as follows : 

" 1. Such room (in basement or cellar) shall be at least 9 feet 
high in every part from the floor to the ceiling. 

" 2. The ceiling of such room shall be at least 4 feet 6 inches 
above the surface of the street or ground outside of or adjoining the 
same. 

" 3. There shall be apurtenant to such room the use of a separate 
water-closet properly constructed. 

" 4. Such room shall have a window or windows opening upon 
the street, or upon a yard or court. The total area of windows in 
such room shall be at least one-eighth of the superficial area of the 
room, and one-half of the sash shall be made to open the full width, 
and the top of each window shall be within 6 inches from the 
ceiling. 

" 5. All walls surrounding such room must be made damp-proof 
and water-proof, as specified, etc." 

Cellars, in a great many houses, are not cemented at 
all, and frequently are damp, and, when near shores, are 
partly or wholly full of water. 

The causes of water in cellars are many, and it is 
sometimes difficult to find the source of the water. 
The following are the main causes of water in cellars : 

1. Ground-water. If cellars are not completely dis- 
connected from the ground by concrete, etc., the 
ground-water, if at a high level, may enter the cellar. 

2. Tide-water. The tide, when at high pressure, may 
back up into the cellar through the sewer and drain- 
pipes. 

3. Spring-water. Hidden springs may crop out in 
the cellar. 



130 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

4. Surface drainage. Some surface pond, pool, or 
collection of rain-water, etc., may be near a celiar, and 
the water therefrom drain into the cellar. 

5. Leaks in water-service pipes, either near or within 
the house. 

6. Leaks in sewer-pipes, either near or within the 
house; sometimes from hopper closets or school-sinks in 
adjoining houses. 

The character of the water in cellars must be ana- 
lyzed, if its source is unknown, to discover whether the 
liquid comes from the sewer or water-pipes. Defects 
in sewers and sewer-connected fixtures can also be dis- 
covered by putting into the suspected sewers or fixtures 
some coloring matter, as uranine or fuchsine, and 
watching for the appearance of the color in the cellar- 
water. 

The remedy for water in the cellar is the removing 
of the cause and making the cellar water-tight. 

Overcrowding. — Apartments or rooms within a house 
are sometimes, especially at night, occupied by too many 
people in proportion to the floor and cubic space, hence 
night inspections are undertaken by the proper author- 
ities to determine the number of occupants, and to 
measure the space in rooms. 

" Sec. 112. No room in any tenement-house shall be so over- 
crowded that there shall be afforded less than 400 cubic feet of air 
to each adult, and 200 cubic feet of air to each child under 12 years 
of age occupying such room; and no apartment in any tenement- 
house shall be so overcrowded that there shali be afforded in the 
living rooms and bedrooms of said apartment iess than 600 cubic 
feet of air to each individual/' 



TENEMEXT-HO USES, 131 

Condition. — Xo matter how well constructed the ten- 
ement-house may be, if, after construction, the house 
is not properly taken care of, it will become dilapidated, 
filthy and offensive. A strict supervision over and care 
of the yard, fixtures, etc., are essential to the house be- 
ing fit to live in, and therefore the law not only calls for 
proper cleaning of the house and its several parts, but 
also that, in each and every tenement-house, there 
should reside a housekeeper, whose sole duty it should 
be to take care of the house, clean all its parts, and ex- 
ercise supervision over it. 

Yards in tenement-houses are usually very small, and 
are greatly abused. In a space of 10-12 X 25 feet will 
often be found the yard hoppers or school-sink; and 
the space is filled by the inevitable clothes-lines. The 
yard should be properly cemented or flagged, and so 
graded as to discharge all surface-water into a properly 
trapped, sewer-connected, drain. The yard should be 
swept clean, and kept free from rubbish. 

The Air-shafts , Courts, and Areas should be properly 
paved, graded, and drained, and should be kept clean. 
The fresh-air inlet in the front area, or in front side- 
walk, should be kept clear of all obstructions. 

The Cellar. Even the best-constructed cellar wiF 
become offensive if not properly taken care of. The 
floor of the cellar should not be broken, as the holes 
become receptacles for dirt, and the walls and ceiling 
should be whitewashed or painted frequently. The 
cellar-floor is to be drained when the house-drain is un- 
derground, the drain to be trapped with a syphon trap 
provided with very deep seal to prevent evaporation, 



132 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION 

The cellar should be cleaned of all offensive refuse and 
rubbish, and be frequently disinfected. 

The Halls of tenements are, as a rule, dark and 
dreary, dimly lighted by day, and little more so by 
night. The law relating to lights at night in halls is as 
follows : 

" In every tenement-house a proper light shall be kept burning 
by the owner in the public hallways, near the stairs, upon the 
entrance floor, and upon the second floor above the entrance floor 
of said house, every night from sunset to sunrise throughout the 
year, and upon all other floors from sunset till 10 P. M." 

The rails and balusters of stairs should be secure and 
in good repair, and the wainscoting and floors of the 
halls shall be well kept and frequently scrubbed and 
cleaned. The practice of papering walls of halls is per- 
nicious; a light-colored paint being the best covering 
over walls and ceilings of halls, as well as of water- 
closet apartments. 

The Water-closet .Apartment should be well looked 
after, as it is the place most likely to be dirty in a ten- 
ement-house. The floor should be clean, and must be 
of an impervious material. The floor, seats, walls, ceil- 
ings, windows, etc., should be frequently cleaned. 

The Roofs of tenement-houses require great care, and 
should be clean and free from defects and leaks. Guard- 
rails should protect the roof on all sides, and the eaves- 
gutters should be in good repair and tight; the whole 
roof should be painted once a year. The chimney, pipes, 
and tank on roof also should be kept in good condition. 

The Plumbing Fixtures have often beep alluded to 
already, and nothing remains but to emphasize the fact 



TENEMENT-HO USES. 133 

that, of all parts of the house, the plumbing and plumb- 
ing fixtures must be constantly watched, that all defects 
may be promptly repaired, and cleanliness exercised to 
the utmost. 

The Rooms should be clean, the walls and ceilings 
painted, and floors scrubbed; the windows should be 
easily opened and cleaned, and often left open to change 
the air in the rooms. 



CHAPTEE III. 
PEIVATE DWELLINGS. 

Houses built for one or two families are, as a rule, of 
better construction than tenement-houses, but there is 
a large number of old houses which were built years 
ago, and which are in a bad sanitary condition, that are 
used as private dwellings. 

The points especially to be looked after by the in- 
spector examining private dwellings are the cellar and 
the plumbing. 

The cellar is, as a rule, large and spacious, but is 
usually filled with rubbish and refuse, and the floor 
is rarely a cemented one. The antiquated hot-air fur- 
nace so often found in the cellars of private houses is 
a cause of frequent complaint, as it is hardly ever in 
good order, is badly constructed, the joints not being 
tight, the flues and air-conduits defective, the cold-air 
box in the wrong place, and the whole a source of smoke 
and coal-gas. The servants' closet (usually an old pan 
closet) is'jlocated in the cellar; the house-drain is under- 
ground, and either of earthenware or of brick. The 
cellar, as a whole, is a repository for *< sewer-air and a 
breeding-place for disease germs. 

The plumbing in old private houses is sometimes so 
complicated and so full of defects that it is at times 
a matter of difficulty to examine it. The reason for 

134 



PRIVATE DWELLINGS. 135 

this is that these old houses have been subjected to 
the bungling of several generations of plumbers, each 
trying to remedy certain evils, but instead adding to 
them by some new complicated by-pass/' connection, 
etc. The wash-basins in the many bedrooms may 
be a convenience, but they are certainly additional 
means of allowing sewer-air to enter the house. These 
wash-basins are all over the house, irrespective of the 
location of the main waste-pipe, and consequently re- 
quire the running of long, horizontal, lead branch-pipes 
under the floor, with the likelihood of these being 
gnawed by rats and broken into by nails. The wash- 
basins are also left unused for long periods, and the 
traps consequently lose their water-seal by evaporation, 
thus permitting the escape of sewer-air from the drain. 
Vent-pipes are not often found, and syphoning is fre- 
quent. Private dwellings are the places where the pan 
water-closet is still frequently found; nor is the exten- 
sion of vertical pipes the rule in these old houses. 

Altogether the sanitary condition of many old dwell- 
ings is deplorable; and as the municipal authorities are 
mostly occupied looking after tenement-houses, the 
private dwellings receive little or no attention unless 
some disease breaks out, or some tenant has the courage 
to complain to the proper department. 

Right here it is proper to remark that unsanitary 
conditions are found alike in the palace and in the 
hovel; it is a difference of degree rather than of kind 
— often the result of ignorance of those primal truths, 
easy of comprehension, — truths, the application of 
which it has been our object, in this book, to elucidate. 



CHAPTER IV. 

LODGING-HOUSES. 

"A lodging-house is a house or building, or portion thereof, in 
which persons are harbored or received, or lodged for hire for a 
single night, or for less than one week at a time; or any part of 
which is let for any persons to sleep in for a term less than a week." 
N. Y. San. Code. 

This is the official definition of a lodging-house, and, 
although applicable also to hotels, is meant for the 
cheap lodging-houses used by the transient population 
of cities, and especially of the poorer class. Lodg- 
ing-houses are under the supervision of the sanitary 
authorities; and their construction, maintenance, and 
keeping are under the surveillance of the inspectors of 
lodging-houses. The N. Y. San. Code insists that 

" Beds in all lodging-houses shall be separated by a passage- 
way of not less than 2 feet horizontally, and the beds shall be so 
arranged that under each of them the air shall freely circulate, and 
there shall be adequate ventilation. Four hundred cubic feet (400) 
of space shall be provided and allowed for each bed or lodger." 

The following regulations of the Boston Board of 
Health are quite explicit in regard to lodging-houses 
(Chapin) : 

" 1 ) The means of light and ventilation must be satisfactory to 
the Board of Health, and beyond control of the lodgers. 

" 2) All floors and stairways must be sound, smooth, and either 
painted or shellacked, ' 

186 



LODGING-HO USES. 137 

"3) Air-space 300 (in New York 400) cubic feet. 
" 4) Open and spacious dormitories are preferred. 
"5) Single rooms must have fire-proof. partitions. 
" 6) Xo carpets allowed on floors or stairs. 

" 7) Xo less than 2 horizontal feet between sides of any 2 beds. 
" 8) Bedsteads must be single and of iron. 
"9) Blankets required, comforters prohibited. 
" 10) Mattresses to be covered with fire-proof covering. 
"11) Xo one is allowed to sleep in his day clothing. 
" 12) Unclean persons must take a bath before retiring. 
" 13) Water-closets (one to every 20 lodgers), lavatories, and 
shower baths, with hot and cold water, all with open plumbing, 
must be furnished on each floor, and floors to same must be of 
marble, slate., or concrete." 

Lodging-houses are frequently inspected at night. 
The following extract is from the Xevr York City 
charter : 

DIMEXSIOXS AXD VEXTILATIOX OF ROOMS. 
" Sec. 1316. In every such house hereafter erected or converted 
every habitable room, except rooms in the attic, shall be in every 
part not less than 8 feet in height from the floor to the ceiling; 
and every habitable room in the attic of any such building shall be 
at least 8 feet in height from the floor to the ceiling, throughout 
not less than one-half the area of such room. Every such room 
shall have at least one window connecting with the external air, or 
over the door a ventilator of perfect construction, connecting it 
with a room or hall which has a connection with the external air, 
and so arranged as to produce a cross-current of air. The total' 
area of window or windows in every room communicating with the 
external air shall be at least one-tenth of the superficial area of 
every such room: and the top of one, at least, of such windows shall 
not be less than 7 feet 6 inches above the floor, and the upper half 
at least, shall be made so as to open the full width. Every habit- 
able room of a less area than 100 superficial feet, if it does not com- 
municate directly with the external air, and is without an open 
fire-place, shall be provided with special means of ventilation, by 
a separate air-shaft extending to the roof, or otherwise, as the 
Board of Health may prescribe.*' 



CHAPTEE V. 
SWEAT-SHOPS. 

1st large cities, owing to the overcrowding and pov- 
erty of the foreign population, a great many industries 
are being pursued in the homes of the working people, 
thus adding to the general unhealthy conditions of the 
houses of the poor the evils peculiar to the various un- 
sanitary industries. Tailoring in its various branches, 
necktie-making, cigarmaking, and kindred industries 
have been taken up by the Italians, Hebrews, Hun- 
garians, and other foreigners, and the air of the tene- 
ment-house, already overladen with impurities, is 
further poisoned by dust, dirt, and the unwholesome in- 
gredients of the individual manufactures; often one 
room serves as working-, sleeping-, cooking-, and living- 
place. That such conditions are dangerous to health is 
conceded by all; but these so-called sweat-shops are 
also dangerous, in view of the fact that they are the 
means by which various diseases are disseminated and 
spread broadcast among the people handliiig and buying 
these sweat-shop-made goods. 

Various laws have from time to time been enacted 
to confine, limit, and prohibit work in tenement-houses.' 
The cigar-making industry has already been brought 

13$ 



SWJ2AT-SH0PS. 139 

under control, and the condition of cigar-makers greatly 
improved; the tailoring industry, however, by which 
tens of thousands of tenement-house dwellers make 
their living, is as yet not effectually controlled. 

The following sections of the New York Labor Law 
relating to sweat-shops are interesting as covering all 
points: 

" Manufacturing, altering, repairing, or finishing articles in 
tenements. — Xo room or apartment in any tenement or dwelling- 
house, or in a building situated in the rear of any tenement or 
dwelling-house,, shall be used for the purpose of manufacturing, 
altering, repairing, or finishing therein, any coats, vests, knee- 
pants, trousers, overalls, cloaks, hats, caps, suspenders, jerseys, 
blouses, dresses, waists, waist-bands, underwear, neckwear, furs, 
fur trimmings, fur garments, skirts, shirts, purses, feathers, arti- 
ficial flowers, cigarettes, cigars, or umbrellas, unless a. license is 
secured therefor as provided in this article. But nothing herein 
contained shall apply to collars, cuffs, shirts or shirt-waists made 
of cotton or linen fabrics that are subjected to the laundrying 
process before being offered for sale. If the factory inspector ascer- 
tain that such room, apartment, or building is in a clean and 
proper sanitary condition, and that the articles specified in this 
section may be manufactured therein under clean and healthful 
conditions, he shall grant a license permitting the use of such room, 
apartment, or building, for the purpose of manufacturing, altering, 
repairing, or finishing such articles. Each license shall state the 
maximum number of persons who may be employed in the room 
or rooms to which such license relates. The number of persons to 
be so employed shall be determined by the number of cubic feet of 
air-space contained in each room or apartment mentioned in such 
license, allowing not less than 250 cubic feet for each person em- 
ployed between the hours of 6 o'clock in the morning and 6 o'clock 
in the evening; and, unless by a special written permit of the fac- 
tory inspector, not less than 400 cubic feet for each person em- 
ployed therein between the hours of 6 o'clock in the evening and 
G o'clock in the morning, but no such permit shall be issued unless 
such room or apartment is lighted by electricity or other suitable 



140 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

light, at all times during such hours, while such persons are em- 
ployed therein. If the factory inspector finds that infectious or 
contagious diseases exist in a workshop, room, or apartment of a 
tenement or dwelling-house or of a building in the rear thereof, 
in which any of the articles specified in Sec. 100 of this chapter, 
are being manufactured, altered, repaired, or finished, or that 
articles manufactured or in process of manufacture therein are 
infected, or that goods used therein are unfit for use, he shall 
report to the local board of health, and such board shall issue such 
order as the public health may require. Such board may condemn 
and destroy all such infected articles or articles manufactured or 
in the process of manufacture under unclean or unhealthful con- 
ditions." 



CHAPTER VI. 
WORKSHOPS AXD FACTORIES. 

The term " factory " is used to designate a place 
where work is done by one or more persons by means of 
mechanical power, whereas a " workshop " is a place 
where work is done by one or more persons with- 
out mechanical power; thus, a tailor-shop with ma- 
chines run by hand or foot is a workshop, but if these 
machines are run by steam, then it is a factory. This 
is the logical differentiation and definition of the terms, 
although the KVw York Labor Law says: " The term 
' factory ' shall be construed to include also any mill, 
workshop, or other manufacturing or business establish- 
ments where one or more persons are employed at 
labor." 

A great part of the w^orkingman's life is spent in the 
workshop or factory, and the sanitary condition of 
these is of the very greatest importance, as it has a de- 
cided influence upon the health and longevity of the 
laborer. The pursuit of some special trade may be 
fraught with various dangers to the health and life of 
the worker; add to these dangers a workroom which is 
unsanitary, ill ventilated, not properly lighted, badly 
plumbed, and overcrowded, and the dangers are in- 
creased a hundredfold. 

141 



142 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION 

To remedy the evils of unsanitary workshops and 
factories, most of the States have passed laws to im- 
prove the condition of the workingman and the places 
in which he works. These laws are called " factory " 
or " labor " laws, and their administration is entrusted 
to a specially created Factory, or Labor Department. 

The following is an extract from the provisions of the 
New York Labor Law of 1897 : 

" 1) Eight hours shall constitute a day's work for all classes of 
employees in this State except those engaged in farm and domestic 
service. The wages to be paid for a legal day's work upon all 
public work shall not be less than the prevailing rate for a day's 
work in the same trade or occupation in the locality where such 
work is being done. 

" 2) Ten consecutive hours' of labor, including one-half hour 
for meals, shall constitute a day's work in the operation of all 
street surface and elevated railroads in cities of more than 100,000 
inhabitants. _ 

"3) Ten hours, exclusive of the necessary time for meals, shall 
constitute a legal day's work in the making of bricks in brick- 
yards. 

" 4) Every person employing females in a factory shall provide 
and maintain suitable seats for the use of such female employees. 

" 5) Scaffolding, hoists, and staging, etc., to be constructed, 
placed, and operated, as to give proper protection to the life and 
limb of a person employed. All swinging and stationary scaffold- 
ing shall be so constructed as to bear 4 times the maximum weight 
required to be dependent therefrom or placed thereon, when in 
use; and not more than 4 men shall be allowed on any swinging 
scaffold at one time. 

" 6) Protection of persons employed in buildings in cities. 

" 7 ) A child under the age of 14 years shall not be employed in 
any factory in the State. A child between the ages of 14 and 16 
years shall not be employed without, a certificate from the Health 
Department, 

" 8) No minor under the age of 18 years, and no female shall be 
employed at labor in any factory before 6 A. m. or after 9 P. M., or 



WORKSHOPS AND FACTORIES. 143 

for more than 10 hours in any one day or 60 hours in one week, 
except to make a shorter work-day on the last day of the week. 

"9) Elevators and hoisting shafts to be enclosed and properly 
cared for and guarded. 

" 10) Hand-rails to be provided on all stairways. The steps of 
stairs to be provided with securely-fastened rubber. Stairs to be 
screened at sides and bottom. Doors to open outwardly and not 
to be locked, fastened, or bolted during work. 

"11) Wherever machinery is used, belt-shifters or other contri- 
vances to be provided for throwing belts on and off pulleys. All 
vats, pans, saws, etc., to be properly guarded. Exhaust-fans to 
be provided for the purpose of carrying off dust from emery- 
wheels, grindstones, and other machinery creating dust. 

" 12) Fire-escapes to be provided in all factories. 

"13) Walls and ceilings of workrooms to be cleaned, white- 
washed, or painted. 

" 14) Size of rooms. — No more employees shall be required or 
permitted to work in a room in a factory between the hours of 6 
o'clock in the morning and 6 o'clock in* the evening than will allow 
to each of such employees not less than 250 cubic feet of air- 
space; and, unless by a written permit of the factory inspector, 
not less than 400 cubic feet for each employee, so employed between 
the hours of 6 o'clock in the evening and 6 o'clock in the morning, 
provided such room is lighted by electricity at all times during 
such hours, while persons are employed therein. 

" 15) Ventilation. — The owner, agent, or lessee of a factory shall 
provide, in each workroom thereof, proper and sufficient means of 
ventilation; in case of failure the factory inspector shall order such 
ventilation to be provided. 

" 16) Wash-room and water-closets.— Every factory shall con- 
tain a suitable, convenient, and separate water-closet or water- 
chose ts for each sex, which shall be properly, screened, ventilated, 
and kept clean and free from all obscene writing or marking; and 
also a suitable and convenient wash-room. The water-closets used 
by women shall have separate approaches. When women or girls 
are employed, a dressing-room shall be provided for them, when 
required by the factory inspector." 

It will thus be seen by a careful perusal of the above 
so-called " labor laws " that the workingman has been 



144 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

the object of favored legislation. What is wanted from 
now on is not more laws, but the strict literal interpre- 
tation and rigid application of all existing laws. Then 
and then only will the condition of the poor "unfortu- 
nates -who are compelled to work amid most unsanitary 
environments be improved. 



CHAPTER VII. 
MEKCANTILE ESTABLISHMENTS. 

By " mercantile establishments " is meant places 
where goods are sold or held for sale, such as stores, 
sale shops, department stores, etc. These places were, 
as a rule, not included in the factory acts, and as the 
employees in them are mostly women and children, 
great need was felt for regulating the hours of labor 
and putting these establishments in a sanitary condition. 

The mercantile law in New York State, known as 
Chapter 418 of the Laws of 1897, is a decided forward 
step in this direction. 

The following are the essential sections of this law : 

"1) Sixty hours is the maximum of time in one week that a 
woman under 21 and male children under 16 shall be made to work. 

"2) Children under 12 are not to be employed. Children be- 
tween 12 and 14 years of age can be employed only during vaca- 
tion time, but must have a certificate from the Health Department. 
Children between 14 and 16 can be employed only after receiving 
a certificate as to their school attendance, strength, etc. 

"3) Suitable wash-rooms and water-closets are to be provided. 
The water-closets are to be separate for males and females, and are 
to be properly screened and ventilated. 

"4) Lunch-rooms are not to be adjacent to water-closets. 

" 5 ) Seats, stools, or other suitable seats must be provided for all 
female employees. 

" 6) Women and children not to work in basements unless per- 
mitted by the Health Department." 

145 



CHAPTEK VIII. 
THE SMOKE NUISANCE. 

Among the many nuisances incident to city life is the 
black smoke belched forth from the chimneys of fac- 
tories. The composition of the smoke as it leaves 
the chimney depends upon the character of the fuel 
burned, as well as on the manner of combustion and the 
care with which it is carried out. Smoke consists of car- 
bon and various gases ; its density depends on the num- 
ber of particles of unconsumed carbon^ When the coal 
used is entirely consumed, no black smoke forms, but 
if the combustion is incomplete, a large part of the un- 
consumed fuel will go off and be wasted in the form of 
smoke, causing a vitiation of the air. 

Anthracite coal and coke give no smoke, or, at least, 
very little; but if soft coal, and especially if shavings, 
sawdust, etc., be burned, the smoke will be abundant 
and black. When furnaces are of sufficient capacity, 
with grates having a large area, with the coal spread 
continuously in a thin sheet, and with the requisite 
amount of air furnished, the production of smoke 
greatly diminishes. 

There are various smoke-consuming and smoke-pre- 

146 



THE SMOKE NUISANCE. 147 

venting appliances employed with a view to abating the 
nuisance. 

The following are the recommendations printed in a 
circular of the Cincinnati engineer in charge of this 
nuisance (Chapin) : 

" 1) Have a hot fire. Give the gas sufficient space and time to 
burn before the fire is below a red heat. 

" 2) Fire in small quantities over one part of the grate at a time. 
The other parts must be closely watched and promptly attended to. 

"3) Keep a clean fire all the time. Never keep a set of bare 
grate-bars in service that are warped or burned, because the air- 
spaces become closed. Keep the side walls of furnaces in good re- 
pair, ash-pit free from ashes, and bridge- wall clean and in repair. 
Do not permit deposits to accumulate back of the bridge-wall. 

" 4) Clean flues or tubes at least once each day. 

" 5) Do not delay if draught is not good, but attend to it imme- 
diately, as a good draught is important in attaining good combus- 
tion." 



CHAPTER IX. 
BAKERIES. 

Bakeeies are commonly located in cellars, and their 
proper ventilation, lighting, and plumbing are, as a 
rule, bad and defective. The small bakeries in the 
tenement-house districts are usually in bad sanitary 
condition, and endanger the health of the employees, 
who are compelled to work in the hot, stifling at- 
mosphere from 12 to 16 hours during the night; more- 
over, they are a source of danger in spreading infection 
among consumers of the bakery products. Most cities 
have some laws in regard to bakeries. In New York 
State, bakeries are under the supervision of the Health 
Department of the municipality, as well as under that 
of the Factory Inspector of the State. 

The following is an extract from the New York State 
Labor Law: 

"Sec. 110. Hours of labor in bakeries and confectionery estab- 
lishments. — No employee shall be required or permitted to work 
in a biscuit, bread, or cake bakery or confectionery establishment 
more than 60 hours in any one week, or more than 10 hours in 
any one day, unless for the purpose of making a shorter work day 
on the last day of the week; nor more hours in any one week than 
will make an average of 10 hours per day for the number of days 
during such week in which such employee shall work. 

"Sec. 111. Drainage and plumbing of buildings and rooms oc- 

148 



BAKERIES. 149 

cupied by bakeries. — All buildings or rooms occupied as biscuit, 
bread, pie, or cake bakeries, shall be drained and plumbed in a 
manner conducive to the proper and healthful sanitary condition 
thereof, and shall be constructed with air-shafts, windows, or ven- 
tilating-pipes, sufficient to insure ventilation. The factory in- 
spector may direct the proper drainage, plumbing, and ventilation 
of such rooms or buildings. Xo cellar or basement, not now used 
for a bakery shall hereafter be so occupied or used, unless the pro- 
prietor shall comply with the sanitary provisions of this article. 

" Sec. 112. Requirements as to rooms, furniture, utensils, and 
manufactured products. — Every room used for the manufacture of 
flour or meal food-products shall be at least 8 feet in height and 
shall have, if deemed necessary by the factory inspector, an im- 
permeable floor constructed of cement, or of tiles laid in cement, 
or an additional flooring of wood properly saturated with linseed 
oil. The side walls of such rooms shall be plastered or wainscoted. 
The factory inspector may require the side walls and ceiling to be 
whitewashed, at least once in three months. He may also require 
the woodwork of such walls to be painted. Tr : furniture and 
utensils shall be so arranged as to be readily cleansed and not 
prevent the proper cleaning of any part of the room. The man- 
ufactured flour or meal food-products shall be kept in dry and airy 
rooms so arranged that the floors, shelves, and all other facilities 
for storing the same can be properly cleaned. Xo domestic ani- 
mals, except cats, shall be allowed to remain in a room used 
as a biscuit, bread, pie, or cake bakery or any room in such bakery 
where flour or meal-products are stored. 

"Sec. 113. Wash-room and closets; sleeping places. — Every 
such bakery shall be provided with a proper wash-room and water- 
closet or water-closets apart from the bake-room, or rooms where 
the manufacture of such food-product is conducted, and no water- 
closet, earth-closet, privy, or ash-pit shall be within or connected 
directly with the bake-room of any bakery, hotel, or public res- 
taurant. No person shall sleep in a room occupied as a bake- 
room." 

The following rules are from the Pennsylvania law 
(Chapin): 

•* 1) All bakeries shall be plumbed and drained in a satisfactory 
manner as approved by the law: and should also be ventilated by 
means of air-shafts, windows, or ventilating-pipes. 



150 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

"2) They must have an impervious floor, constructed of cement 
or of tiles laid in cement, or of wood of which all the crevices shall 
be filled in with putty, and the whole surface treated with oil var- 
nish. The inside walls and ceilings shall be plastered, and either 
be painted with oil paint, three coats, or be lime-washed, or the 
side walls plastered and wainscoted to the height of 6 feet from 
the floor, and painted or oiled; when painted, paint shall be re- 
newed at least once every 5 years, and shall be washed with hot 
water and soap at least once in every 3 months; when lime- 
washed, the lime-washing shall be renewed at least once in every 
3 months. No domestic or pet animal shall be allowed in the room. 

" 3) The manufactured products shall be kept in perfectly dry 
and airy rooms. 

" 4) Every such bakery shall be provided with a proper wash- 
room and water-closets, apart from the bake-room, and no water- 
closet, earth-closet, privy, or ash-pit shall be within or communi- 
cate directly with the bake-room. 

" 5) Every sleeping-room for persons employed in every bakery 
shall be kept separate from the room where flour or meal-products 
are manufactured or stored, and shall be provided with one or more 
external glazed windows, each of which shall be at least 9 super- 
ficial feet in area, of which 4£ feet shall be made to open for venti- 
lation." 



CHAPTER X. 
STABLES. 

1st most cities some regulations are in force limiting 
the location of stables. Thus, in Boston stables are pro- 
hibited within 200 feet from churches. In Chicago, in 
order to build a stable, it is necessary to get the per- 
mission of the owners of the houses within 600 feet 
from the proposed stable; in Xew York no stable can be 
kept on the same lot with a tenement-house, and all 
stables previously built on such lots are being ordered 
out. 

Horses need from 10,000 to 20,000 cubic feet of air 
in an hour; but as the air of stables can be changed 
frequently, it has been estimated that the minimum 
air-space should be 1200 cubic feet. Each horse should 
have 120 square feet floor-space, the stalls should be 
6 feet wide and 9 feet long, and the stable should be 
ventilated by windows of proper dimensions in opposite 
walls, and, if possible, by a louvered open ridge between 
roof and walls. 

The floors of stables should be of some impervious ma- 
terial, like cement, bricks, etc., and the woodwork in 
stalls should be tight, well laid, and frequently taken up 
and cleaned. 

The draining of stables is done by longitudinal open 

151 



152 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

drains, the so-called " valley drains/' which should be 
covered and connected with the sewer by a properly 
trapped, extra heavy iron drain. 

The manure is kept loose and removed every day in 
proper manure-carts, or is pressed into barrels or bales 
and removed once or of tener a week. 

The removal of manure is in some cities regulated as 
to the time; thus, in Jersey City the removal can be 
done only between 6 p. m. and 7 a. m. ; in Boston manure 
can be removed only after 12 at night during the sum- 
mer. The stable should be kept clean and frequently 
disinfected. 

We quote the following from the Sanitary Code of 
New York: 

" Sec. 120. That every owner, lessee, tenant, and occupant of 
any stall, stable, or apartment in the built-up portions of the City 
of New York, in which any horse, cattle, or other animal shall be 
kept, or of any place in which manure, stable refuse, or any liquid 
discharge of such animals shall collect or accumulate, shall cause 
such manure, stable refuse, or liquid to be promptly and properly 
removed therefrom, and shall at all times keep or cause to be kept 
such stalls, stables, or apartments, and the drains, yards, and appur- 
tenances thereof, in a clean and sanitary condition, so that no offen- 
sive odors shall be allowed to escape therefrom. It shall be the 
duty of every such owner, lessee, tenant or occupant, to cause all 
manure and stable refuse to be removed daily from such stable or 
stable premises, unless the same are pressed in bales, barrels, or 
boxes, as hereinafter provided. It shall not be lawful to remove 
manure and stable refuse in carts or wagons, or to cart the same 
within the city limits without a permit from the Board of Health, 
and such carts and wagons shall be of a construction approved by 
said Board, and every such cart or wagon must have a permit 
from the Board in writing, and be used in accordance with the 
terms of such permit and not otherwise. Manure-carts and wagons 
shall be loaded within the stable premises and not upon the streets 
or sidewalk, and shall be removed from such premises in a manner 






STABLES. 153 

not in any way offensive or to cause any nuisance. All manure 
and stable refuse when transported through the streets must be so 
covered and secured that no part of the same will fall upon the 
street, and so as to prevent the escape of offensive odors, and the 
same shall not be unloaded or deposited within the city limits, ex- 
cept upon the conditions of a permit in writing from the Board of 
Health, and at such docks and places as shall be approved by the 
Board, and to which a permit in writing for such use shall have 
previously been granted by said Board. Xo manure or stable refuse 
shall be allowed to be thrown upon or fall and remain upon any 
street or sidewalk, or upon any ground near any stable, and no 
manure and stable refuse shall be allowed to remain for more than 
24 hours in any place within any stable, unless it is pressed in 
bales, barrels, or boxes. Xo manure-vault or receptacle shall be 
built or used on any premises within the built-up portions of the 
city, nor in any other part of the city, except pursuant to the 
terms of a permit granted therefor by the Board of Health. 

" Every owner, lessee, tenant, or occupant of any stall, stable, or 
apartment, in the built-up portions of the City of Xew York, in 
which any horse, cattle, or other animals shall be kept, and from 
which the manure and stable refuse is not removed daily as here- 
inbefore provided, shall cause the same to be pressed in bales, bar- 
rels, or boxes, at least once in each day, and so pressed as to re- 
duce the same to not more than one-third of the original bulk. 
Manure and stable refuse pressed in bales, barrels, or boxes, shall 
be removed to such docks or places as shall be approved by the 
Board of Health, and to which a permit in writing for such use 
shall have previously been granted by said Board, and such bales, 
barrels, and boxes shall not be opened until delivered at such docks 
or places." 



CHAPTER XI. 
SLAUGHTER-HOUSES. 

Slaughter-houses in cities are apt to become a se- 
rious nuisance; they are, as a rule, kept under strict 
supervision by sanitary authorities, and their location is 
limited to certain districts, a careful watch being kept 
over them to prevent unsanitary conditions. 

Slaughter-houses must be well lighted, properly ven- 
tilated, drained, plumbed, and cared for. 

Following are abstracts from the N". Y. San. Code : 

" 1) That the keeping and slaughtering of- all "cattle, and the 
preparation and keeping of all meat and fish, birds, and fowl, shall 
be in that manner which is, or is generally reputed or known to 
be, best adapted to secure and continue their safety and whole- 
someness as food. 

"2) Certain streets and areas defined where slaughtering can 
be done with permits from the Department. 

"3) The slaughter-houses, yards, and appurtenances, to be thor- 
oughly cleansed and purified, and all offal, blood, fat, garbage, 
refuse, and unwholesome or offensive matter, to be therefrom re- 
moved, at least once in every 24 hours after the use thereof for 
slaughtering purposes; and all woodwork, save floors or counters, 
shall be thoroughly painted or whitewashed. 

" 4) That no building occupied wholly or partly as a slaughter- 
house shall, without special permit, be occupied for a dwelling or 
lodging-place. 

"5) That every such building should be at all times kept ade- 
quately ventilated; that no blood shall be kept therein over night; 

154 



SLA UGHTEBHO USES. 



155 



that adequate underground connection shall be made from every 
such building with a public sewer; and the yard shall be cemented 
and paved so as not to absorb blood, and so as to carry all liquids 
into sewers." Sec. 81-85. 



TYPICAL SLAUGHTER HOUSE. 



REFRIGERATOR 



u 



^=<\ 



II I 1 El 



ft 



HIDE 
HOUSE 



E 



SLAUGHTER 
HOUSE 



E 



E 







Fig. 29. 

(From the New York Health Department Report, 1896.) 



CHAPTER XII. 
OFFENSIVE TRADES. 

There is a large number of trades and manufactures 
that are for one reason or another offensive, as they 
produce effects injurious to health and dangerous to life, 
and thus constitute a public nuisance. 

The following classification of offensive trades and 
processes is taken from Dr. Tracy's encyclopedic arti- 
cle on Public Nuisances in Buck's " Hygiene and Pub- 
lic Health": 

1) Offensive trades. 

2) Offensive processes. 

3) Other nuisances. 

Under each heading are classified the nuisances accord- 
ing to their predominant offensive characteristics, i.e., 
the chief quality on account of which they are looked 
upon as nuisances. 

Offensive Trades. — Those businesses in which the 
substances dealt with are offensive, or may become so 
as a result of mechanical manipulation. 

Smell. — a) Keeping of living animals: horses, cat- 
tle, pigs, poultry, etc. h) Killing of animals: cattle, 
sheep, pigs, etc. c) Storage or handling of animal mat- 

156 



OFFENSIVE TRADES. 157 

ter: manure, offal, bones, hides, hoofs, horns, fish, oils, 
eggs, cheese, etc. d) Storage or handling of vegetable 
matter: fruits, vegetables, essential oils, etc. e) Stor- 
age or handling of mineral matter: oils. /) Storage or 
handling of mixed matter: rags, kitchen refuse. 

Dust. — Sand - blast, carpet - cleaning, hair - picking, 
street-sweeping. 

Ivoise. — Street-vending, junk-dealing, etc. 

Offensive Processes. — Those businesses in which the 
substances dealt with are offensive as a result of chem- 
ical manipulation. 

Smell. — a) Manufacture of animal substances : fat- 
rendering, lard-refining, soap-making, glycerine-refining, 
gut-cleaning, bone-boiling, pork-packing, tanning, glue- 
making, shell-burning. 6) Vegetable substances: brew- 
ing, gas-making, distilling, sugar-refining, vinegar-, var- 
nish-making, c) Mixed: cooking. 

Fumes. — Manufacture of chemicals, glass-works, pot- 
teries, bleaching-works, brick-making, smelting, refin- 
ing, assaying, etc. 

Dust. — Plaster-burning, lime-burning, coffee-washing. 

Other Nuisances. — Smoke. — Box-factories, planing- 
mills, foundries, forges, potteries, dye-houses, etc. 

Xoise. — Railroads, factories, boiler-works, etc. 

Most of the enumerated works and trades are offen- 
sive for the causes indicated, and are injurious to the 
health of those who work at those trades and also to 
others outside of the industry. The modes of prevent- 
ing the deleterious effects of these industries upon the 
health of those employed in them, and also of prevent- 
ing them from becoming public nuisances, cannot be 
gone into here. 



CHAPTEK XIII. 
FOOD. 

The supply of food for the needs of man is not only 
an economic question, but it is also a sanitary problem, 
when the food for any reason becomes unfit for use and 
injurious to health. 

The causes of food being unfit for use are several, and 
may be enumerated thus : 

1) An unhealthy or diseased source. 

2) An unwholesome or diseased condition. 

3) Adulteration of the food. 

An unwholesome source and condition: meat from 
diseased cattle; milk from sick cows; food decayed and 
unfit by reason of putrefaction, or by reason of being 
put up in certain containers, such as tin cans, boxes, etc. 

Adulteration of foods : adulterations may be divided 
into those injurious to health and those not so. The 
prevalent processes of adulteration are the following: 

1) By eliminating some important ingredient, such 
as removing the cream from milk, i.e., skimming. 

2) By substituting some cheaper material for the one 
more expensive, such as oleomargarine for butter, etc. 

3) By the addition of some seemingly harmless sub- 
stance, such as water to milk. 

158 



FOOD. 159 

4) By the addition of some preservative, such as 
borax, salicylic acid, formaldehyde, etc. 

5) By coloring an inferior grade to make it appear as 
a superior one. 

6) By the addition of spices or other ingredients to 
improve the taste, etc. 

All adulteration of food is prohibited or regulated, 
and the sale of decayed, unwholesome, and unfit foods 
is prohibited. The laws about food are not only Mu- 
nicipal and State, but also Federal; thus, the meat in- 
dustry is partly under the supervision of the Federal 
Government. 



CHAPTER XIV. 
MEAT. 

Meat is a staple and a most important article of 
food; it is under complete sanitary supervision from the 
time the cattle are raised and brought to the markets, 
to the time it is exposed for sale in the retail shops. 

The supervision of the cattle-raising trade, and the 
slaughtering in the abattoirs is under the Federal as 
well as State control. There are laws regulating the 
sale of cattle, their keeping, transportation,, the meth- 
ods of killing, the places of killing, etc. 

The characteristics of good meat are, according to 
H. Sydney Marsden, F.R.S. (San. Record, July), the 
following: 

" Mutton and beef, when of good quality, possess a rich, bright, 
uniform color, neither too pink nor of a too deep purple tint; and 
a firm texture, free from flabbiness, though moderately soft and 
elastic. It has a marble appearance, due to the deposits of fat 
among the connective tissue between.the muscles. It should not be 
wet or clammy, nor should the fat look like jelly or parchment, 
as these are signs that the meat is unwholesome and unfit for use. 
It should scarcely moisten the fingers, and the juice should be dis- 
tinctly acid. It should have little or no odor. 

"The characteristics of fresh fish are the following: The skin 
should be bright and clean and retaining its scales, the flesh firm 

160 



MEAT. 161 

and not flaccid, soft, or broken down, and the gills should be pink, 
bright, and clean-looking, and not of a dirty brown color; the 
condition of the lining membrane of the body cavity should be 
carefully examined and be in a healthy, sound condition, and the 
smell not disagreeable." 

The following sections of the !STew York Sanitary 
Code in relation to foods, meats, etc., cover most points 
in the sanitary supervision of foods. 

" Sec. 44. That no meat, fish, birds, or fowl, fruit or vegetables, 
nor any milk, not being then healthy, fresh, sound, wholesome, and 
safe for human food, nor any meat or fish that died by disease or 
accident, shall be brought within said city, or offered or held for 
sale in any public or private market, as such food, anywhere in 
said city. 

" Sec. 45. That no calf, pig, or lamb, or the meat thereof, shall 
be brought, held, or offered for sale, as such food, in said city, 
which (being a calf), when killed and dressed, weighs less than 
forty-five (45) pounds; or (being a pig) was, when killed, not 
more than five weeks old; or (being a lamb) was, when killed, not 
more than eight weeks old. Nor shall any meagre, sickly, or un- 
wholesome fish, birds, or fowl, be brought, held, sold, or offered 
for sale, as such food, in said city. 

" Sec. 46. That no cattle shall be killed for human food while 
in an overheated, feverish, or diseased condition; and all such 
diseased cattle, in the City of New York, and the place where 
found, and their disease, shall be at once reported to this Depart- 
ment by the owner or custodian thereof, that the proper order may 
be made relative thereto, or for the removal thereof from said city. 

" Sec. 47. That no meat or dead animal above the size of a 
rabbit shall be taken to any public or private market for food until 
the same shall have fully cooled after killing, nor until the entrails, 
heads, and feet (except of poultry and game, and except the heads 
and feet of swine) shall have been removed; nor shall the body or 
any part thereof of any animal which is to be used as food be 
carted or carried through the streets, except it be covered so as to 
protect it from dust and dirt ; and no meat, poultry, or game shall 
be hung or exposed for sale outside of any shop or store in this 
city or in the open windows and doorways thereof. 



162 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION 

" Sec. 48. That no decayed or unwholesome fruit or vegetables, 
no impure or unhealthy or unwholesome meat, fish, birds, or fowl, 
shall be brought into said city, to be consumed or offered for sale 
for human food, nor shall any such articles be kept or stored 
therein. 

" Sec. 50. That no cased, blown, plaited, raised, stuffed, putrid, 
impure, or unhealthy or unwholesome meat or fish, birds, or fowl, 
shall be held, bought or sold, or offered for sale, for human food, or 
held or kept in any market, public or private, or any public place 
in said city. 

" Sec. 51. That no meat, fish, fruit, vegetables, or milk, or un- 
wholesome liquid, shall knowingly be bought, sold, held, offered for 
sale, labelled, or any representation made in respect thereof, under 
a false name or quality, or as being what the same is not, as 
respects wholesomeness, soundness, or safety for food or drink." 

Horse-meat is often sold in large cities, and repre- 
sented by butchers as that of cattle. In !New York City 
the Board of Health strictly enforces Sec. 84 of the 
Sanitary Code, which reads as follows: 

". . . And the slaughtering of horses for food is prohibited, and 
no horses shall be slaughtered in the City of New York without a 
permit, in writing, from the Department of Health; and no meat 
of slaughtered horses shall be brought into, or held, kept, or of- 
fered for sale, at any place in said city." 

The following is an extract from an article by Dr. M. 
Betz in the July Public Health Record. It is of interest 
as to the identification of horse-meat : 

"In bulk, horse-meat is detected comparatively without diffi- 
culty; the meat itself is remarkable on account of a peculiar dark 
purple-brown, with age, especially if it is exposed to the air, some- 
times even changing to a black-purple. The interstitial fibres are 
very fine, much more elastic than in beef ; a horse-steak, therefore, 
seems quite soft. The muscular layers part easily, and the meat 
on that account seems softer notwithstanding the coarse grain. 
The odor is peculiar, unpleasantly sweet. The taste of raw horse- 
meat is so decidedly sweet that even an unsuspecting person would 



MEAT, 163 

at once remark this peculiarity. This sweetness is caused by a 
large percentage of a peculiar sugar called glycogen, which is 
present in horse-meat in very much larger proportion than in the 
meat of any other animal used for food, and it is upon this sugar 
that the chemical identification of horse-meat depends. 

" The fat of horses is soft and oily, from a light to a dark yellow 
color. The poorer the horse, the more yellow the fat. This fat, 
when a quarter of horse-meat is hung out in the open air, on ac- 
count of its soft character, will, by its own specific gravity, form 
small bag-like forms, and thus gives a quarter of horse-meat a 
quite peculiar appearance." 



CHAPTEE XV. 
MILK AND MILK-INSPECTIOK 

Milk consists of 87.17% water and 12.83% solids. 
The solids consist of 3.69% fats, 4.88% carbohydrates, 
and 6.71% salts. 

Milk should be opaque, of full, white color, and with- 
out peculiar taste or smell; on boiling it should not 
change in appearance. Its reaction is slightly acid or 
neutral. Specific gravity, 1.025% to 1.035%; cream 
10% or more. The best preservative for milk is boil- 
ing. Various chemicals are sometimes added to pre- 
serve milk, some of which are harmless, others harmful. 
Among the principal substances added to secure the 
preservation of milk are the following : sodium carbon- 
ate, borax, boric acid, formaldehyde, etc. 

Milk is adulterated by the subtraction of its cream, 
i.e., " skimming "; by the addition of water, and by the 
addition of preservatives or other foreign materials, 
such as starch, dextrine, chalk, etc. 

The following circular of the New York Department 
of Health gives a detailed and thorough description of 
the rules and regulations for the sale, care, and exam- 
ination of milk: 

164 



MILK AND MILK- INSPECTION, 



165 



RULES AND REGULATIONS OF THE HEALTH DEPART- 
MENT OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK FOR THE SALE 
AND CARE OF MILK. FEBRUARY, 1896. 

Extract from Sanitary Code of Laws Governing the Sale of Milk. 

" Sec. 186. No milk which has been watered, adulterated, reduced, 
or changed in any respect by the addi- 
tion! of water or other substance, or by 
the removal of cream, shall be brought 
into, heldj kept, or offered for sale, at 
any place in the City of New York; 
nor shall any one keep, have, or offer 
for sale, in the said city, any such milk. 

" The term ' adulterated ' when so 
used in this section means: 

" First — Milk containing more than 
88% of water or fluids. 

" Second — Milk containing less than 
12% of milk solids. 

" Third — Milk containing less than 
3% of fats. 

" Fourth — Milk drawn from animals 
within 15 days before or 5 days after 
parturition. 

"Fifth — Milk drawn from animals 
fed on distillery waste, or any sub- 
stance in a state of fermentation or 
putrefaction, or on any unhealthy food. 

" Sixth — Milk drawn from cows kept 
in a crowded or unhealthy condition. 

" Seventh — Milk from which any part 
of the cream has been removed. 

" Eighth— Milk which has been 
adulterated with water or any other 
fluid, or to which has been added, or 
into which has been introduced any 
foreign substance whatever. 

" Sec. 207. Any milk found to be 
adulterated, either by the addition of 
water or other substance, or by the removal of cream, or which 
has been brought into, or is held, or offered for sale, in the City 




Fig. 30.— Lactometer. 



166 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

of New York, contrary to the provisions of Sec. 186 of the Sanitary 
Code, may be seized and destroyed by any inspector or other officer 
of this Department authorized to inspect milk. 

" Sec. 221. No milk shall be received, held, kept, offered for sale, 
or delivered in the City of New York, without a permit, in writing, 
from the Board of Health, and subject to the conditions thereof. 

BEGULATIONS. 

" 1. Milk shall not be kept for sale or stored in any room used 
for sleeping or domestic purposes opening into the same. 

" 2. Milk must not be transferred from cans to bottles or other 
vessels on streets or on ferries or at depots, except when trans- 
ferred to vessel of purchaser at time of delivery. 

" 3. Milk shall not be sold in bottles except under the following 
rules : 

" Bottles must be washed clean with hot water solution of soap, 
or soda, or some other alkali, and then with hot water before filling 
with milk. 

" Bottles must not be filled except at the dairy or creamery, and 
in the city only in rooms so situated as to prevent the contamina- 
tion of the milk by dust from the streets, or other impurities. 

" Bottles must not be washed or filled with milk in any room 
used for sleeping or domestic purposes, or opening into the same. 

" 4. The vessel in which milk is kept for sale must be so pro- 
tected by means of a suitable cover or covered receptacle, and so 
placed in the store as to prevent dust from the street or other im- 
purities falling into it. 

" 5. Store permits must be posted in stores so that they can be 
easily seen at all times. 

" 6. Wagon permits to be carried on the wagons at all times 
when engaged in the sale, transportation, or delivery of milk. 

" 7. The number of wagon and the number of permit, the latter 
to be preceded by the words ' Health Department Permit,' must be 
painted on both sides of the wagon in letters two (2) inches in 
length and one-half (J) inch in width, and in some contrasting 
color to that of wagon. 

" 8. If any changes are made in the information given on appli- 
cation blank, the Department must be immediately notified. 



MILK AND MILK-INSPECTION. 167 

KULES FOR HANDLING AND KEEPING MILK. 

" 1. Milk should be kept in some place where dust and other im- 
purities cannot fall into it. such as a box with tight-fitting cover; 
preferably an ice-box. 

" 2. The milk should be kept at as low a temperature as possi- 
ble, not above 50° Fahrenheit. 

" 3. After the day's sales are over, the measures and utensils 
used in the sale of milk should be thoroughly cleaned with boiling 
water, to which a small amount of soda has been added in the pro- 
portion of one tablespoonful of washing soda to a gallon of water. 

" 4. The overflow pipe from the ice-box in which the milk is kept 
must not be connected directly with the drain-pipe or sewer, but 
must discharge into an open, water-supplied, properly-trapped, 
sewer-connected sink (see Sec. 217 of the Sanitary Code). 

" 5. The ice-box in which the milk is kept should be cleaned, by 
scrubbing out with hot soda solution, made as in Xo. 3, at least 
twice a week. 

"6. In selling milk, stir up the contents of the can thoroughly 
before measuring out the amount desired. This will prevent unin- 
tentional skimming. In this way the last quart of milk sold from 
the can will contain as much cream as the first quart sold. 

" 7. It sometimes happens that in cold weather the milk may be 
delivered to the dealer more or less frozen. If such is the case, 
detach the ice from the side of the can and gently heat the contents 
until the ice is all melted. If there is much ice in the can it is 
absolutely necessary to do this before selling the milk, otherwise 
the liquid part dipped out and sold at first will contain more of 
the solid part of the milk and cream, while the ice remaining and 
consisting principally of water will, after a time, melt, and the re- 
sult will be milk containing more water than pure milk, and this 
might be enough to appear as though the milk had been adulterated 
with water. 

" 8. Do not place ice in the milk if it is desired to cool it or keep 
it cold, as the ice will melt, and you will then have adulterated the 
milk with water. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR TESTING MILK. (BY THE CREAM-GAUGE.) 

" Fill the cream-gauge one-half full with water, at a temperature 
of 120° Fahrenheit, to which has been added a few drops of a 
strong solution of washing soda. Then, after stirring up the con- 



168 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION 

tents of the can thoroughly, fill the gauge to the top mark with 
the milk. Shake well and place in very cold water (say 40° 
Fahrenheit). In about 30 minutes the cream will have risen and 
the percentage can be read off, remembering that the result ob- 
served must be multiplied by 2, as one-half (J) water and one-half 
(J) milk was used. Example: 8% of cream was observed by this 
test; multiplying this by 2 would be 16%, which would be the 
true amount of cream contained in the milk by this test. Good 
milk should show by this test 14 to 18% of cream. 

" To test for water, the lactometer can be used as follows : Stir 
the milk to be tested so that a fair sample can be. taken. Warm 
or cool enough milk to 60° Fahrenheit to fill the testing cylinder. 
Insert the lactometer in the milk in the testing cylinder, being 
careful not to wet that part of the stem above the milk, and ob- 
serve where it floats. Pure milk will not fall below the 100° mark 
on the lactometer at 60° temperature. It must be remembered that 
skimming the milk will make the lactometer float higher, and the 
addition of water or cream may make it sink lower than 100°, but 
if the appearance of the milk upon the lactometer is noted, no one 
can mistake watered milk for milk to which cream has been added, 
nor pure milk for milk from which the cream has been removed, 
as in skimmed milk. In other words, if the lactometer floats below 
100° and the milk looks thin, water has been added. If it floats 
above 100° and the milk looks thin, it may be skimmed, or 
skimmed and watered. But if it floats above 100° and looks 
creamy and yellow and sticks to the glass, you can be reasonably 
sure that it is pure. Good average milk will indicate about 109° 
on the lactometer at a temperature of 60° Fahrenheit, and show 
about 14% of cream by the cream test given above." 



CHAPTER XVI. 
INFECTIOUS DISEASES. 

Infectious diseases are those which are due to some 
external morbific agents of a microbic nature, i.e., mi- 
croscopic organisms, which multiply and produce cer- 
tain symptoms and pathological changes peculiar to each 
variety of organism. 

The infectious diseases are divided into : 

1) Miasmatic Diseases. Those which are due to 
some morbific agent outside the body; these diseases 
are not communicable from one individual to another. 

2) Contagious Diseases. The morbific agents of 
these are produced within the body; these diseases are 
communicable from one to another, either directly by 
contact with the sick person, or indirectly on handling 
the excretion of the diseased person, or objects with 
which those excretions have been infected. 

The secretions and excretions of the body, which are 
carriers of infection, vary as to the disease, and are 
the following: 

1) Products of respiration; 2) feces and urine; 3) 
epithelia of the skin or mucous membranes; 4) sweat, 
milk, blood, and sputum. 

169 



170 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION 

The mode of infection is as follows : 

1) By direct contact of the healthy person with the 
diseased one. 

2) By indirect contact with the secretions from the 
diseased person. 

3) By clothing, vessels, bedding, and rooms. 

4) By insects, flies, mosquitoes, bugs, etc. 

5) By food, water, milk, meat, etc. 

6) By air and dust — -the dried particles from infected 
secretions floating in the air and producing disease 
through inspiration. 

The following diseases are regarded as infectious and 
communicable from one individual to another: Small- 
pox, Cholera, Scarlet Fever, Diphtheria, Croup, Yellow 
.Fever, Typhus, Typhoid, Measles, Whooping-cough, 
Tuberculosis, Cerebro-spinal Meningitis, Chicken-pox, 
Leprosy, Erysipelas, Septicaemia, Relapsing Fever, Gon- 
orrhoea, and Syphilis; also the diseases which are com- 
municated from animals to men, viz., Anthrax, Rabies, 
etc. 

To prevent the infection of healthy persons by the 
diseases enumerated above, communities have adopted 
various measures. These measures are the follow- 
ing: 

1) Compulsory reporting of infectious diseases, (a) 
by the physicians treating them; (b) by physicians hear- 
ing of them; (c) and by owners of houses, lodging- 
houses, boarding-houses, ships, vessels, etc. 

2) Isolation of patients from healthy individuals, 
either by certain compulsory measures in the homes of 
the patients, or in hospitals. 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES. 171 

3) Quarantine of the infected person during the pe- 
riod of communicability of the disease. 

4) Disinfection of the individual, his excretions, the 
objects he comes in contact with, clothing, rooms, etc. 

Not all diseases regarded as infectious are required 
to be reported. Some diseases which must be reported 
in one city are not required to be reported in another. 
Thus, venereal diseases, which are undoubtedly com- 
municable, and at certain times even contagious, are not 
required to be reported for obvious reasons. Again, in 
some cities, certain special diseases are not reported. 
For instance, typhoid fever is not reported in the Dis- 
trict of Columbia, Dayton, Jersey City, Memphis, 
Omaha, St. Paul, Terre- Haute, and Toledo. Tubercu- 
losis need not be reported in quite a number of cities. 
In Hartford, pneumonia is required to be reported. 
(Chapin, Mun. San. in U. S.) 

As to isolation,. quarantine, and similar methods for 
preventing the spread of infectious diseases, the f ollow- 
ing sections of the N. Y. San. Code cover most points : 

"That the phrase 'contagious disease' shall be held to include 
all persons sick, affected, or attacked by or of a disease of an in- 
fectious, contagious, or pestilential nature (more especially, how- 
ever, referring to cholera, yellow fever, smallpox, chicken-pox, 
diphtheria [including membranous croup], ship or typhus, typhoid, 
spotted, relapsing and scarlet fevers, and measles, and also includ- 
ing any new disease of an infectious, contagious, or pestilential 
nature), and also any other disease publicly declared by this Board 
dangerous to the public health." 

" Sec. 145. That every physician shall report to the Sanitary 
Bureau, in writing, every person having a contagious disease (and 
the state of his or her disease, and his or her place of dwelling and 
name, if known), which such physician has prescribed for or at- 
tended for the first time since having such a contagious disease, 



172 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

during any part of the preceding 24 hours; . . . every attending or 
practising physician thereat must, at his peril, see that such report 
is or has been made by soma attending physician. 

" Sec. 146. That it shall be the duty of each and every practising 
physician in the City of New York to report, in writing, to the 
Board of Health, the death of any of his patients who shall have 
died in said city of contagious or infectious disease, within 24 hours 
thereafter, and to state in such report the specific name and type 
of such disease. 

" Sec. 147. That every keeper of any boarding-house or lodging- 
house, and every inn-keeper and hotel-keeper, shall, within 24 
hours, report in writing to the Sanitary Bureau the same particu- 
lars in the last section required of any physician, concerning any 
person being at any of the aforesaid houses or hotels, and attacked 
with any contagious disease." 

" Sec. 149. That it shall be the duty of every person knowing 
of any individual in said city sick of any contagious disease, and 
the duty of every physician hearing of any such sick person, who. 
he shall have reason to think requires the attention of this De- 
partment, to at once report the facts to the Sanitary Bureau in 
regard to the disease, condition, and dwelling-place, or condition 
of such sick person. 

" Sec. 150. That the keepers, lessees, tenants, and owners of 
every boarding-house and lodging-house shall, within six hours 
after the fact shall come to his or her or their knowledge, notify 
the Sanitary Bureau, in writing, of the fact of any seafaring man 
or person lately from any vessel being taken sick at such house, 
and shall in such notice state where such sick person may be found, 
and from what vessel, and when he came, to the best of the knowl- 
edge of the person or persons giving such notice." 

" Sec. 153. That pulmonary tuberculosis is hereby declared to 
be an infectious and communicable disease, dangerous to the pub- 
lic health. It shall be the duty of every physician in this city to 
report to the Sanitary Bureau, in writing, the name, age, sex, oc- 
cupation, and address of every person having such disease who has 
been attended by or who has come under the observation of such 
physician for the first time, within one week of such time. It shall 
also be the duty of the commissioners or managers, or the principal, 
superintendent, or physician of each and every public or private 
institution or dispensary in this city to report to the Sanitary 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES. 



173 



Bureau, in writing, or to cause such report to be made by some 
proper and competent person, the name, age, sex, occupation, and 
last address of every person afflicted with this disease who is in 
their care, or who has come under their observation within one 
week of such time. It shall be the duty of every person sick with 
this disease and of every person in attendance upon any one sick 
with this disease, and of the authorities of public and private in- 
stitutions or dispensaries, to observe and enforce all the sanitary 
rules and regulations of the Board of Health for preventing the 
spread of pulmonary tuberculosis." 



INCUBATION PERIOD, DURATION AND SOURCE OF INFECTIOUS 
DISEASE. 



Disease. 


Incubation 
Period. 


Duration of Disease. 
Infectiveness. 


Sources of Infection. 


Diphtheria 


2-7 days 


2-4 weeks. As long as 


Secretions from throat, 






the bacilli are found 


also objects which 
come in contact with 
them. 


Rubeola (Ger- ) 
man measles) j 
Measles 


9-21 days 
7-14 days 


2 weeks 

2 weeks. Before and 
during rash 


Skin secretions and 
epithelia. 


Scarlet fever... 


1-7 days 


4-8 weeks. As long as 
skin is peeling 


* 


Smallpox 


10-14 days 


2-4 weeks. As long as 
skin is not clear 


" 


Typhus fever . . 


10-18 days 


2-4 weeks 




Typhoid fever. 


14-21 days 


3-4 weeks. As long as 


Excretions from the 






typhoid bacilli are 


bowels. 






present in dejecta 




Whooping- ) 
cough j" 


7-14 days 


4-12 weeks. As long as 


Sputum and bronchial 


spasmodic cough lasts 


secretions. 


Varicella 


10-14 days 


2-3 weeks 


Skin. 



CHAPTEE XVII. 
DISINFECTION AND DISINFECTANTS. 

We have seen, in the preceding chapter, that one 
of the modes by which infectious diseases are com- 
bated is the disinfection of the diseased person, his 
excretions, and all objects with which he comes in 
contact, either directly or indirectly. By disinfection 
is meant the destruction of the morbific agents causing 
the disease. A disinfectant must, therefore, be power- 
ful enough to kill the germs and spores found in the 
infected substances. 

A deodorant is not a disinfectant, but is for destroy- 
ing the bad odors caused by diseased persons or putre- 
factive changes. It does not, however, kill the germs 
causing the odors. 

Disinfectants are physical and chemical. 

Physical disinfectants are light, air, water, and ex- 
treme cold or heat — dry or moist. Extreme cold kills 
many germs, though not all. Extreme heat kills all 
germs; light kills some. Air and water are not direct 
germicides, although they are a great help by diluting 
the sources of infection. The chemical disinfectants 
are numerous and varied. The principal chemical sub- 
stances used for the purpose of disinfection are the fol- 

174 



DISINFECTION AND DISINFECTANTS. 175 

lowing : Carbolic Acid, Chlorine, Bromine, Iodine, 
Corrosive Sublimate, Potassium Permanganate, Sul- 
phur, Sulphurous Acid, Formalin (Formaldehyde), Cop- 
per Sulphate, Lime, Etc. 

Sulphurous acid, formaldehyde, carbolic acid, and 
bromine are the principal disinfectants used wherever 
heat in some of its forms is not used. 

The circular of the Department of Health of 2s" ew 
York City on " Disinfection and Disinfectants," in 
Part IV., gives the routine of disinfection as practised 
in that city. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 
SCHOOL INSPECTION. 

The proper construction and the sanitary condition of 
schools are of the utmost importance to the community, 
and the supervision of these matters is entrusted to 
proper officials, usually in connection with the various 
educational boards, thus taking schools out of the juris- 
diction of sanitary officers. But the numerous private 
schools existing in almost every town must be, and are, 
under the supervision of sanitary officers, and should be 
thoroughly looked after. These schools are apt to be 
in bad sanitary condition, as it is seldom that their 
heads are guided by any sanitary considerations in the 
selection of the places rented for school purposes. This 
is especially the case with the numerous private schools 
of the immigrants and foreigners which abound in large 
cities, and the sanitary condition of which is very de- 
plorable. In New York City no private school is al- 
lowed in a tenement-house, and no school is allowed to 
exist without a permit from the Health Department, 
whose Inspector of Schools looks after its sanitary con- 
dition. 

Another sanitary work in connection with schools is 
the inspection of children, to discover and isolate cases 

176 



SCHOOL INSPECTION, 177 

of infectious diseases. It is a well-known fact that 
schools are the principal places whence infectious dis- 
eases are widely spread; and, in order to prevent this, 
school inspectors are employed to examine the children 
every day and prevent the attendance of children ex- 
hibiting symptoms of contagious diseases. 

For particulars as to school inspection, etc., see the 
Report on School Inspection in Part IV. 



PART THIRD. 
SANITAEY INSPECTION. 



CHAPTEE I. 
SANITATION AS A PKOFESSIOK 

Fifty years ago there was no such profession as Sani- 
tation. There were a number of persons interested in 
public-health questions and sanitary problems, but these 
were the philanthropists and public-spirited men, the 
pioneers of sanitary reform who strove to better the 
condition of their fellow men; to lower the death-rate 
of the community, and to inculcate into the minds of 
the people the wise saying of Franklin, that " Public 
health is public wealth." 

Thanks to the unselfish devotion and strenuous ef- 
forts of those pioneers, great strides were made in the 
sanitary progress of the nation; vast reforms were un- 
dertaken and accomplished; the health of communities 
was improved; the death-rates of city populations cut in 
half} and permanent sanitary organizations founded by 
the establishment of various boards of health in villages, 
towns, and, cities. 

178 



SANITATION AS A PROFESSION 179 

The organization of the various sanitary authorities 
in so many places necessitated the employment of a 
number of sanitary officers; this number has steadily 
increased until at present there are several thousand 
men in the United States engaged in the various de- 
partments connected with sanitary work. 

At first, when the sanitary work was unorganized and 
crude, the men engaged in the pursuance of the va- 
rious investigations were mostly volunteers, principally 
medical men. 

The incomparable, painstaking, thoroughly scientific 
reports left by some of these volunteers are monuments 
to their efficiency; vide the Report of the Quarantine 
Convention of 1859, the Report on the Sanitary Condi- 
tion of New York of the Council of Hygiene in 1866, 
and others. 

With the enlargement and widening of the sanitary 
field, however, volunteer work became inadequate, and 
a number of men, mostly physicians, were appointed to 
continue the work so well begun by the volunteers. 

With time and progress the sanitary field has become 
differentiated and specialized, until, at present, we have 
the various branches of sanitary work, each with its 
special inspectors; such as Health, Factory, Sanitary, 
Building/ Plumbing, Offensive-trades, Contagious-dis- 
ease, Meat, Milk, Fruit, Tenement-house, etc., In- 
spectors, all embraced in the great and noble profession 
of Sanitation. 

But as the medicine of to-day differs from the medi- 
cine of the middle of the last centurv, and as the educa- 
tional standard of the physician of the twentieth century 



180 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

is above that of the nineteenth century, so is the sanita- 
tion of to-day different from that of 50 years ago; 
and the educational standard of the sanitary inspector 
of to-day is different (or it ought to be) from the stand- 
ard of the sanitary officers of years ago. 

Unfortunately, the sanitary profession of to-day is 
not as yet what it ought to be, not being filled with the 
best elements of the medical and engineering profes- 
sions which are the proper professions for sanitary work. 
The reasons for this shortcoming are the following : 

1) Political selection of sanitary employees. 

2) Inadequate compensation. 

3) Insufficient education. 

4) Absence of organization among the sanitary em- 
ployees. 

Let us examine these causes more thoroughly. 

Political Selection of Sanitary Officers. — Dr. Chas. 
V. Chapin, in his book on " Municipal Sanitation in 
the United States," says: "Unfortunately most ap- 
pointees to official sanitary positions in the United 
States are entirely untrained for the duties they are to 
perform. To exhibit some degree of natural ability is 
all that is asked, and often this is not required, the sole 
qualification of the appointee being his political service 
to the party which has the appointing power . . . the 
successful candidate needs no other recommendation 
than that of ' influential friends.' " 

Dr. Wende, of Buffalo, also deplores the political 
selection of sanitary officers. (Chicago Medical Record, 
April, 1901.) 

Of course, while conditions remain as they are; while 



SANITATION AS A PROFESSION. 181 

the sanitary inspector is in danger of losing his p±ace by 
the frequent political party upheavals; while the tenure 
of office is insecure; and while the fitness of the candi 
date is political instead of scientific, educated, intelli- 
gent, and trained men will neither seek nor get sanitary 
positions. 

However, there is already noticeable in many cities 
a tendency toward reform in this direction; and thanks 
to the various civil-service laws, as well as to public 
opinion, there are less changes made in health and sani- 
tary departments than before, and sanitary officers are 
left undisturbed when their fitness for their work has 
been proven. There is, therefore, a tendency to estab- 
lish a permanent tenure of office during good behavior, 
and the position of the sanitary inspector begins to be 
more and more secure. 

A permanent tenure of office should imply a pension 
for length of service and disability; and in some places, 
notably so in Xew York City, quite a liberal pension 
provision is, in fact, embodied in the Charter of 1901. 

Let us hope, too, that the time is not distant when 
the following desideratum of Dr. Wende in the article 
quoted w T ill be fulfilled, viz.: " Selection of municipal 
health officers for fitness, with secure tenure of office 
and proper compensation. The municipalities should 
not be exposed to unnecessary risks by politics." This 
brings us to the next question of 

Proper Compensation. — The work of the sanitary 
officer is manifold, arduous, difficult, and fraught with 
many dangers to health and life. If there are any sine- 
cures in the public employment, they are not in the 



182 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

health and sanitary departments. There is no class of 
municipal employees whose work is so constant, exact- 
ing, difficult, irregular, dangerous, and important, as is 
that of the sanitary inspectors. The sanitary officer 
has no 8-hour work-day, with a Saturday half -holiday ; 
he is always on duty. Day and night he must be 
at his post, and when going to bed he is not sure 
that he will not be called out for some special sanitary 
work. 

He is responsible for the condition of his district ; any 
citizen may come up and find fault with his work; the 
chronic kicker who finds fault with some intangible nui- 
sance demands that his theories be accepted by the 
inspector; the " one of the tenants/' who is afraid to 
sign his name to the complaint, threatens to go to the 
Mayor if his complaint is not attended to at once. 
Apart from all these, the inspector in the performance 
of his duties directly endangers his health and life, for 
he has to climb rickety stairways, go down in cellars full 
of water and mud, inhale the noxious fumes of open 
drains and sewers, and come in contact with diphtheria, 
scarlet fever, typhoid, and other infectious diseases 
from which the ordinary citizen flees in horror. 

If we add to the above the fact that a sanitary of 
ficer must possess certain intellectual and educational 
qualifications, as will be seen later, we should at least 
expect to find the compensation of the officer adequate 
to recompense him for his arduous and dangerous work. 
But on the contrary we find the facts are that 
so far from his receiving a high salary, he, on the con- 
trary, gets a smaller salary than untrained and unedu- 



8ANITATT0N AS A PROFESSION. 183 

catecl officers in other departments of the municipality. 
In Xew York City a janitor of a public school, a messen- 
ger in some department, or some other such employee, 
receives more than the physician or engineer employed 
in the Health Department. 

According to Dr. Chapin. the salaries of sanitary in- 
spectors in the .United States range from 8600 per 
annum in Rochester. Cincinnati. Charleston, and Hart- 
ford, to 81200 in New York. The average salary in 
smaller cities is $900, and in larger $1000. 

Now, there is no doubt that these salaries are inade- 
quate for the work performed, and for the qualified 
men who are required for sanitary positions. Most 
sanitary positions are filled by civil and sanitary engin- 
eers and physicians, and it is evident that such men 
cannot be satisfied with the above salaries. Add to this 
also the fact that in no position are advancement and 
increase of salary less to be expected than in municipal 
positions. When a man works for a private corpora- 
tion he expects a rise in position and influence propor- 
tionate to the years of employment, and the employer 
need ask no one for permission to raise the salary of -a 
trusted employee. In municipal positions it is diffien 

-cure an advancement: and every increase of ?: 
raises such a howl from the organs of the party not i 
power that the heads of departments prefer xb let effi- 
cient sanitary workers of many years remain at a mis- 
erable salary rather than risk harsh criticism from un- 
friendly organs. 

In my opinion, inspectors in large cities should begin 
with a salary r $1200 per annum and each 



184 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION 

year should be raised by a certain sum, say $50-60, so 
that after 15 or 20 years the salary of the sanitary 
inspector will reach an amount in proportion to his 
value and experience. 

Inadequate Education. — In England the public- 
health laws require that a sanitary inspector shall have 
a certificate from one of the several sanitary institutes 
giving diplomas in sanitation, after a course of study 
and thorough examination. Here in the United States 
we have no such special institutes, and no educational 
requirement is made of the candidate except a civil- 
service examination, which is, at best, insufficient to 
show the qualification of the candidate. It is true, some 
medical and other colleges have lately established 
courses in sanitary science, but the teaching is as yet 
very rudimentary, and the students are not those who 
usually seek sanitary positions. 

Absence of Organization and Esprit de Corps 
among Sanitary Officers. — In England there are sev- 
eral powerful sanitary organizations, such as the Sani- 
tary Inspectors, the Health Officers' Association, the 
National Health Workers, etc., and almost every sani- 
tary officer of every hamlet, village, or city, belongs to 
one or other of these organizations. There are also 
quite a number of very able and influential sanitary 
monthly and weekly papers devoted solely to sanitation, 
and read by inspectors. "We have nothing of the kind 
in the United States. There are only one or two 
monthly journals, hardly ever read by sanitary officers, 
and there is no organization whatever among the sev- 



SANITATION AS A PROFESSION. 185 

eral thousand employees of the various health depart- 
ments throughout the States.* 

The evils enumerated and discussed in detail must be 
eradicated before sanitation, as a profession, will attain 
a higher place and receive the recognition to which it is 
entitled. 

The objects sought should be: 

The selection of sanitary officers for fitness only, 
after passing a certain educational test; a permanent 
tenure of office; a substantial salary at the beginning, 
increasing every year, with a pension after 20 years; 
also, a thorough organization of all workers in sanita- 
tion, with news organs and proper sanitary publications 
of their own; meetings,- conventions, etc. 

* The recently organized " Sanitary and Hygienic Society of Xew 
York/ 3 tKe membership of which consists of the sanitary officers 
of the various boroughs; also the "Vermont School for Health 
Officers " are the first steps towards organization among sanitary 
employees, to be followed, it is to be hoped, by organization in 
other cities. The New York Society has a very able organ in its 
"Public Health Record." 



CHAPTEE II. 

QUALIFICATIONS FOE AND AET OF INSPECTION. 

Qualifications. — He who intends to devote him- 
self to the profession of sanitation must be possessed 
of certain qualifications. In the first place, he should be 
blessed with a robust, strong constitution, and perfect 
health, otherwise he will not be able to stand the wear 
and tear incident to the profession. He should have 
perfect eyesight, hearing, and sense of smell. He 
should have at least a high-school education; should 
know something of geology, physics, chemistry, mathe- 
matics, mechanics, physiology, and the allied sciences, 
and should be able to draw. He should have made a 
thorough study of sanitation, both theoretical and prac- 
tical; should understand thoroughly the principles of 
ventilation, drainage, plumbing, etc., besides knowing 
enough of practical building construction, etc., that 
he may not be hoodwinked by builders or plumbers. 
The inspector should also be fully conversant with all 
the State and local laws concerning his specialty, and 
possess the intelligence to pursue the investigations 
which from time to time may be entrusted to him. The 
inspector should, of course, have that command of the 
language which will enable him to make a creditable re- 

186 



QUALIFICATIONS AND ART OF INSPECTION. 187 

port to his superiors. He should be sober, industrious, 
observant, vigilant, conscientious, honest, and thor- 
oughly imbued with the noble spirit of his profession. 
He should always bear in mind that he is the physician 
of the community; that the health and life of the peo- 
ple entrusted to his care depend upon the good work he 
is doing in his field, and that every effort of his to abate 
a public nuisance lowers the death-rate in his district 
and conduces to the health of his fellow men. 

The Art of Inspection. — Sanitary inspection means 
the application of the teachings of the science of sani- 
tation to practice, and as such, inspection becomes an 
art in which skill and experience count highly. Any 
one can inspect a house, and anybody may examine a 
public nuisance, but not every one can find all the de- 
fects in the house, or discover the cause of the nuisance ; 
to do this it requires not only theoretical knowledge, 
but skill and experience as well. The physician just 
from college may know more of anatomy, etc., than the 
old practitioner; but who will not pity the poor unfor- 
tunate who entrusts the diagnosis of his malady to the 
youngster just from the college benches. So it is with 
the sanitary inspector. The probationer may and should 
know much regarding the theory of sanitation, but 
he will make the mistake of his life if he thinks he 
knows it all; and he may find himself rather humiliated 
when he fails to find defects which an ignorant plumber 
is able to point out to him in a moment. In sanitation, 
as in any other profession, experience and practice are 
required before the inspector can be depended upon to 
thoroughly know and understand his subject, and be 



188 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

able to make practical application of his theoretical 
knowledge. 

One of the principal points the inspector has to learn 
is to distinguish between when he is expected to be an 
expert, and when he is nothing more than a witness. 
The inspector is the ears and eyes of the sanitary au- 
thority; and when sent out to inspect a building, etc., 
he must state facts only, and nothing more, and let his 
superiors draw the conclusions, etc. When, however, 
he is empowered to investigate the causes of a public 
nuisance, he becomes an expert, and here he must use 
sound judgment, and be prepared to support his con- 
clusions with his theoretical knowledge and practical 
experience. 



CHAPTER III. 
TENEMENT-HOUSE INSPECTION. 

The defects in tenement-houses are of three kinds : 

1) Defects of construction. 

2) Defects of maintenance. 

3) Defects of condition. 

For the first the real-estate men and builders are re- 
sponsible. 

The responsibility for the second rests upon the 
owner of the house, or his agent and housekeeper. 

The fault for the third class of defects lies solely 
with the tenant and occupant. 

A badly-constructed house may be kept in good sani- 
tary order if the owner keeps it in good repair, and the 
tenants maintain it in good condition; on the other 
hand, the best-constructed house will be in ruins in a 
short time if neglected by the landlord and abused by 
the occupants. 

So it is also between the landlord and tenant. No 
matter how clean the people of the house may be, the 
house will become a pest-hole if the landlord allows the 
roof to leak, the tank to fill with dirt, the sewer to be 
obstructed, the walls and ceilings to remain encrusted 
with filth. On the other hand, no matter how much the 

189 



190 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

owner may spend on maintaining his house in good re- 
pair, and on cleaning and beautifying it, the house is 
bound to become a menace to health and a breeding- 
place for bacteria, if the class of tenants is such that 
cleanliness is unknown among them; if they persist in 
tearing down walls, piling refuse everywhere, making 
holes in pipes, abusing fixtures, etc. 

These considerations have to be kept in view in tene- 
ment-house inspection, in order to know how to inspect 
and whom to make responsible for the defects found 
and the conditions discovered detrimental to health. 

An inspection of tenement-houses as to construction 
and defects in them, also as to light and ventilation, 
should be made by the building, light, and ventilation 
inspectors during and after construction of the build- 
ing. The sanitary or tenement-house inspector should 
attend to the inspection of the defects of repair and 
maintenance of the house, while the inspection of the 
condition in which the house is kept by the tenants 
ought to be entrusted to the sanitary police. 

The time an inspection of a tenement-house ought to 
require depends upon the kind of inspection made, as 
well as upon the number of stories and apartments -the 
house contains. To peep into the cellar, glance at the 
privy accommodations, look up into the halls, and take 
in the view of the yard, may mean an inspection; and, 
unfortunately, many an inspector is compelled to do so 
from the stress of work and the enormous size of his dis- 
trict. But it is not an inspection, and need not take 
more than a few minutes of his time. 

On the other hand, a thorough inspection of a house, 



TENEMENT-HOUSE INSPECTION. 191 

an examination of the construction, ventilation, light, 
plumbing, drainage, and condition of a five-story tene- 
ment-house, requires not only skill, experience, and pa- 
tience, but also time, and can hardly be done in less than 
several hours. Such an inspection as covered in the 
"Xotes of a Complete Inspection of a Tenement-house," 
in the following chapters, must take quite a few hours; 
but, once done, may be put on record, and will facilitate 
subsequent inspections of the same house. Therefore, 
every tenement-house ought to be inspected in such a 
thorough manner at least once a year, and the results 
of inspection carefully recorded, so that the subsequent 
inspections need not require as much time. This is one 
reason why an inspector should be kept for a long time 
in the same district; for, after a certain time, he be- 
comes intimately acquainted with every house in his 
district, and will be better able to take care of his dis- 
trict and watch for defects, violations of the law, and 
public nuisances, than the inspector recently placed in 
a district. 

The mode of inspecting a tenement-house may differ 
somewhat with every inspector. Some begin in the cel- 
lar and work up to the roof; others begin at the roof 
and inspect while going down to the cellar. The best 
way would be, in my opinion, to combine both methods, 
and begin in the cellar, examining and noting all de- 
fects while going up to the roof, and then go over the 
same field and verify, correct, and complete the inspec- 
tion as one goes down again. 

Here I mav add one thing which the inspector must 
always bear in mind, and that is: to mind his own busi- 



192 'HANDBOOK ON SANITATION 

ness and never, never talk to the owner, housekeeper, 
or tenants about his inspection, his work, what he finds, 
and what he is going to report. The inexperienced in- 
spector may feel benevolently disposed to his fellow 
man, and may not be able to withstand the wiles of the 
ubiquitous landlord, who will w^ant to know the report 
and finding of the inspector; but be assured that his 
every innocent remark may find its way into higher 
quarters, and he may find himself a victim of his own 
loquacity. The inspector is sent to investigate and make 
his report to his chief; and, until he makes such report, 
all he sees and discovers must not be talked about nor 
divulged to any one ; and it is a wise policy to gently but 
firmly inform the too-insistent owner, or others, that 
the inspector must first make his report to his superior, 
and that in due time the owner will know what the in- 
spector has to report. 

Another matter of importance to be kept in mind dur- 
ing inspection of tenement-houses, as well as other in- 
spections, is neither to be too lenient nor too strict, 
neither to fear nor favor the owner of the house, but 
always to give facts as they are and nothing more, no 
matter how the inspector may be treated by the care- 
taker or owner of the house. Some owners or agents 
of houses, when meeting an inspector on duty in their 
houses, are apt to become indignant, insolent, and over- 
bearing; nevertheless the inspector should not be in- 
fluenced by this in submitting his report. Above all, 
the inspector must remember his duty, his oath, and his 
office as guardian of the public health, and be above 
petty, selfish, and small considerations. 



CHAPTEK IV. 

ETJLES AND REGULATIONS EOK SANITARY IN- 
SPECTORS. 

Iisr small municipalities the executive health officer 
performs the duties of a sanitary inspector; in larger 
places, however, special inspectors are appointed to ex- 
amine sanitary conditions, inspect houses, report on 
public nuisances, etc. In New Jersey every town of 
2000 inhabitants must appoint a sanitary inspector, 
otherwise the State Board of Health is entitled to ap- 
point one and charge his salary to the town. There are 
some cities with a large population, however, where 
there is not one inspector. In some cities the sanitary 
inspectors are recruited from the regular police force. 
In Chicago there are 5 women inspectors. In New 
York, during the existence of the mercantile division of 
the Health Department, 10 women were employed. 

Inspectors are, as a rule, always on duty; that is, they 
can be called any time of day or night to perform 
sanitary work without extra compensation. However, 
this is done only in cases of emergency, epidemics, and 
special dangers to public health. The regular time de- 
voted by inspectors to their work varies from 6 to 9 
hours a day. In New York City inspectors are required 

193 



194 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

to work from 9 a.m. till 4 p. m., with one hour for lunch. 
In Denver the inspection hours are from 8 a. m. to 4 
p. m. ? with one hour for lunch. In Augusta, Ga., from 
7 a. m. to 6 p. m., with two hours for lunch. 

In Atlanta, Cambridge, Milwaukee, Cincinnati, Pitts- 
burg, Columbus, Ga.; St. Paul, San Francisco, Read- 
ing (and in New York City, the tenement-house inspect- 
ors), inspectors are required to wear uniforms. 

Inspectors are required to report at the office at cer- 
tain times, which differ in each city. In New York in- 
spectors report three times a week. In Denver they re- 
port daily at 4 p. m., besides being required to commu- 
nicate with the office twice a day by telephone. In 
Providence inspectors report twice a day at the main 
office. In Charleston the inspectors are required to 
visit 50 premises daily, report at the office every day at 
noon, and bring a report with 50 signatures of the oc- 
cupants of the premises they inspected. In most of the 
large cities rules and regulations are provided for the 
conduct of the inspectors. The most elaborate and 
thorough regulations are those of New York City, ex- 
cerpts from which are given below: 

EXTRACTS FROM THE NEW YORK CITY CHARTER OF 1901 
ON SANITARY INSPECTORS. 

"Sec. 1185. Sanitary Inspectors. — The Board of Health shall 
appoint and commission at least fifty sanitary inspectors (this is 
exclusive of the Police and the other divisions of the Depart- 
ment, such as contagious diseases, food, offensive trades, schools, 
etc.), and shall have power to appoint 20 additional sanitary in- 
spectors, if it deems that number necessary, and from time to 
time to prescribe the duties of each of said inspectors, and the 
place of their performance* and of all other persons exercising 



SANITABT INSPECTORS 195 

any authority under said Department, except as herein specially 
provided; but 30 of such inspectors shall 'be physicians of skill 
and of practical professional experience in said city. The addi- 
tional sanitary inspectors heretofore duly appointed and com- 
missioned, either in New York City or in the City of Brooklyn, 
may be included among the sanitary inspectors mentioned in 
this section, and may continue to act as such without reappoint- 
ment, but nothing herein contained shall curtail any of the powers 
vested in the Department of Health by this act, and the number 
of sanitary inspectors for whom provision is made in this section 
shall be exclusive of the special inspectors for whom provision is 
made in section 1186 and elsewhere in this act. All of the said 
inspectors shall have such practical knowledge of scientific or 
sanitary matters as qualify them for the duties of their office. 
Each of such inspectors shall, once in each week, make a written 
report to said Department, stating what duties he has performed, 
and where he has performed them, and also such facts as have 
come to his knowledge connected with the purposes of this chapter 
as are by him deemed worthy of the attention of said Depart- 
ment, or such as its regulations may require of him; which re- 
ports, with the other reports herein elsewhere mentioned, shall 
be filed among the records of the said Department." 

" Sec. 1321. Pension for physician or employee disabled by 
reason of performance of duty. — The board of trustees of said 
fund shall have power to grant as pension to any physician or 
employee in the Health Department of The City of Xew York, who 
shall, as a consequence of the actual performance of his duty, 
and without any fault or misconduct on his part, have become 
permanently disabled physically or mentally, so as to be unfit to 
perform full duty, a sum not to exceed one-half, nor less than one- 
fourth of his rate of compensation per annum as such physician 
or employee, as the case may be. 

" Sec. 1322. Pensions to personal representatives of physician 
or employee who shall die from disease or injuries suffered in 
consequence of his performance of duty. — Whenever such phy- 
sician or employee shall die while in the service of the Health 
Department from disease contracted or injuries sustained by him 
as a consequence of the actual performance of his duty, without 
any fault or misconduct on his part, leaving a widow, the said 
board of trustees of said pension fund may grant, award or pay 



196 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

to the widow of said physician or employee the sum of $300 an- 
nually, during her life, so long as she remains a widow; and if 
there be no widow of any such physician or employee, but he shall 
leave minor children under eighteen surviving him, then said 
$300 may be given, awarded and paid to said children under 
eighteen years of age." 

"Sec. 1323a. Pension for twenty years' service.— Any phy- 
sician or employee who has or shall have performed duty as such 
physician or employee in any Department of Health in The City of 
New York, for a period of 20 years, or upward, upon his own 
application, in writing, or upon a certificate and report of a 
board of physicians, appointed by the Board of Health, certifying 
that such physician or employee is permanently disabled, so as to 
be unfit for further duty as such physician or employee shall be 
retired from active service by resolution of the Board of Health 
of the Health Department of The City of New York, and placed 
upon the Health Department pension roll, and thereupon shall be 
awarded, granted, and paid from said Health Department pension 
fund by the trustees thereof, an. annual sum during his lifetime 
not exceeding one-half the ordinary full pay of a physician or em- 
ployee in the Health Department service of the j'ank of the phy- 
sician or employee so retired; provided, however, that no pension 
granted under this or the preceding sections, shall exceed the sum 
of $1200 per annum. Pensions granted under this section shall be 
for the natural life of the person receiving the same, and shall 
not be revoked, repealed, or diminished." 

EXTEACTS FROM THE EULES AND EEGULATIONS OF THE 

DEPAETMENT OF HEALTH, NEW YOEK CITY, 

ON SANITAEY INSPECTORS. 

"The Sanitary Superintendent, the Assistant Sanitary Superin- 
tendents, and all Inspectors shall be considered always on duty." 

"All officers and employees of the Department of Health shall 
be at all times courteous and respectful to all persons with whom 
they come in contact in the performance of their duties ; all officers 
and employees of the Department of Health must be protected 
from smallpox by proper vaccination. Intoxication or the use of 
intoxicating beverages during the hours of service are strictly 
forbidden." 



SANITARY INSPECTORS, 197 

" Inspectors have general charge, and must be held responsible 
for the sanitary condition of their respective districts. It is their 
duty to report in writing all violations of the law, Sanitary 
Code and regulations of the Board coming under their observation, 
whether such violations belong to the class under their especial 
charge or not. Such reports should be accompanied with recom- 
mendations and suggestions for the consideration of the Sanitary 
Superintendent." 

" Inspectors shall wear their badges prominently displayed 
when engaged in their official duties. On entering any house or 
premises they must announce their authority and the object of 
their visit, and, while endeavoring to avoid giving offence, must 
make their investigations minutely. If resistance is offered to 
an Inspector in the performance of his duties, he will at once re- 
port the fact. 

" Every Sanitary Inspector and every Medical Inspector not a 
Diagnostician, and every Vaccinator, must give to the work of 
this Department seven hours daily, except on Sundays and legal 
holidays. Saturday being a half holiday by statute, three hours 
will constitute a Saturday's work. When compliance with this 
rule is impossible, resignations will be expected. 

" Inspectors must carefully inspect premises mentioned in com- 
plaints referred to them and make full and intelligent reports 
thereon. The modification of orders is undesirable, and should 
be rendered unnecessary by the intelligence and completeness of 
Inspectors recommendations. They are required to make rein- 
spections promptly • and carefully. A delay of more than forty- 
eight hours in making a reinspection must be reported to the 
President, unless such delay is authorized by the Chief Sanitary 
Inspector, who will thus assume the responsibility. Discretion in 
permitting a tardy compliance with an order rests with the Board 
and not with the Inspector. 

" Inspectors will be held responsible for the existence of remedia- 
ble public nuisances within their respective districts, and are ex- 
pected to find them by original inspection. If unable to secure 
their prompt correction by personal efforts, they must report 
them to the Board, taking special care to correctly name the 
owners. When not otherwise employed- on official business, they 
are expected to make a house-to-house inspection of tenements, 
factories, and all causes of nuisance in their districts. The law 



198 



HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 



gives the Board of Health power to require that such conditions 
shall be thoroughly and properly corrected, and when this is im 
practicable, to vacate houses. It is prepared to use this power 
The object of assigning Inspectors to districts is to familiarize 
them with local conditions. Every Inspector is expected to know 
his district intimately, and his efficiency will be judged uot su 
much by what he claims to have done as by the sanitary condition 
of his district. The existence there of undiscovered and unie 
ported nuisances which should have been found and reported will 
be held to indicate incompetence or unfaithfulness." 



NUMBER OF SANITARY AND OTHER INSPECTORS IN 
THE FOLLOWING CITIES. 

Note. — The following list, which is of course incomplete, is 
based on Dr. Chapin's book: 



Allegheny 

Asbury Park ... 

Atlanta 

Augusta 

Baltimore 

Boston 

Brockton 

Brookline 

Buffalo 

Cambridge 

Charlestown . . 

Chicago. 

Cincinnati 

Cleveland 

Columbus 

District of Columbia. 

Dayton 

Denver 

Evansville. 

Fitchburg 

Hartford 






2 
7 
5 
6 
16 



1 
6 
3 

4 

34 

20 

20 

8 

7 

2 

11 

1 



Is.. 

Ill 



0*3 

o P. 

O CO 



1 


2 


11 


4 


2 






1 


1 




14 


9 


2 






4 


1 


1 




3 


1 




2 


2 




1 


1 


1 


1 





05 Mi 

.III 

o_jn to qg 
ar«sj a - 



1 

4 

20 
4 



•-i o 



50 



S3*) 



SANITARY INSPECTORS, 



199 



NUMBER OF SANITARY AND OTHER INSPECTORS IN 
THE FOLLOWING CITIES.— Continued. 



Haverhill 

Holyoke 

Indianapolis .... 

Lawrence 

Lowell ' 

Lynn 

Louisville 

Manchester 

Memphis ..... 
Milwaukee. ...... 

Minneapolis 

New Bedford 

Newark 

New Haven. 

New Orleans 

Newton 

New York 

Omaha 

Paterson 

Pittsburg 

Philadelphia 

Providence 

Reading 

Richmond 

Rochester 

St. Paul 

St. Louis 

Salt Lake City 

San Francisco .... 

Somerville 

Springfield, Mass. 

Syracuse 

Toledo 

Utica 

Wilmington, Del. 



>)0 

U V 

« p. . 

.±2 * co 

§-io 

CO 



4 
2 

"2* 

12 
13 

7 

'l5* 
4 

19 
3 

61 



17 
"2' 

"i" 

5 

6 
.... 

5 

1 

"2 

10 
3 
4 



a o 
.- & 

-° Q* • 

SCO M 

3 C fc 



4 
2 
1 
1 
1 
.... 

50 
.... 

5 

13 

3 

1 



- C v. 



O M 



4 
3 

"2" 

14 
'20* 



2 
6 

"is" 



O CO 

' 






50 
1 

1 
5 

1 



7 
200 



200 



CHAPTEK V. 
CIVIL-SERVICE EXAMINATIONS. 

A civil-service examination is not the best test of 
the fitness of a candidate; but in the absence of any 
better, and in the absence of proper schools for sani- 
tary training, such examinations show, at least, whether 
a candidate has any knowledge of the subject in which 
he is examined. 

The questions put in the various sanitary examina- 
tions are, as a rule, fair, and not very difficult for any 
one with a knowledge of sanitation to answer. A very 
important part of the examination is that containing the 
questions bearing on the local laws of the department 
in which the examination is held, and the candidate 
must make a thorough study of these laws. 

From 10 to 30 questions are given to the applicant, 
who has from 5 to 6 hours in which to answer them. 
Among so many questions there are a number which are 
easy to answer, a number somewhat more difficult, and 
a few to answer which may not be possible to the 
candidate. The best procedure is to begin with the 
easiest questions first; answer them as thoroughly as 
possible, then to proceed to the more difficult and leave 
the WOst difficult for t\e last; otherwise^ if the appli- 

§00 



CIVIL-SERVICE EXAMINATIONS. 201 

cant begins with the hard questions first, he is discour- 
aged, loses the time in which he might be answering the 
easier questions, and loses all spirit and hope, so that he 
is unfit to give good answers to questions which at first 
would have been very easy. The answ T ers and explan- 
ations must be clear, short, and to the point. The candi- 
date i& not expected to write a treatise on each subject, 
but merely to give a clear and readable opinion, so that 
the examiner may judge how much the applicant knows 
of the subject. Legible handwriting is a great ad- 
vantage in civil-service examinations, as the examiners 
are but human, and often in despair of deciphering the 
writing of an able paper, may give up the task and leave 
the candidate with a low percentage. 



EXTRACTS FROM THE MUNICIPAL CIVIL-SERVICE RULES 
OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK. 

" Appointments and promotions in the Civil Service of The 
City of New York shall be made according to merit and fitness, 
to be ascertained, by examinations which, so far as practicable, 
shall be competitive. 

" Every false statement knowingly made by any person in his 
application for examination, and every connivance by him at any 
false statement made in any certificate which may accompany 
his application, shall be regarded as good cause for the removal 
or discharge of such person. 

"No candidate for positions requiring technical or professional 
knowledge receiving less than 75 per cent on the technical or 
special subjects shall be placed upon the eligible list. No applicant 
receiving in any one subject shall be placed upon the eligible 
list. 

" Every original appointment to or employment in any position 
in the competitive class shall be made for a probationary term of 
three months, and an appointing or nominating officer, in notifying 



202 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

a person certified to him for appointment or employment, shall 
specify the same as for a probationary term only; and if the 
conduct, capacity, and fitness of the probationer are satisfactory 
to the appointing officer, his retention in the service, after the 
end of such term, shall be equivalent to his permanent appoint- 
ment; but if his conduct, capacity, or fitness be not satisfactory, 
he may be discharged at the end of such term, without regard to 
the provisions of Rule 42 limiting the power of removal. 

" No person dismissed from the service for delinquency or mis- 
conduct shall be eligible to appointment in any capacity in any 
department of the Municipal service within two years. 

" To secure compliance with the provisions of the Civil Service 
Law prohibiting removals because of political opinions or affilia- 
tions, no removal of any person in the classified service of the City 
of New York shall be valid unless and until a statement of the 
causes of such removal shall be filed with the Municipal Com* 
mission and a copy of the same furnished to the person sought to 
be removed,, and until such person has been afforded an oppor- 
tunity to present an explanation in writing." 

Schedule D comprises all positions requiring special 
expert knowledge, and which are not included in Sched- 
uleE. 

Schedule E comprises all positions calling for medical 
service. 

SCHEDULE B. 

Rule 56. The Board of Examiners shall examine every applicant 
eligible under these rules for a position in Schedule D, and shall 
give a certificate of qualification to such person only when satis- 
fied: 

First. That he (or she) is within the limits of age prescribed 
for the situation named. 

Second. That he (or she) is free from any physical defect or 
disease likely to interfere with the proper discharge of his (or her) 
duties. 

Third. That his (or her) character is such as to qualify him 
(or her) for such, employment; and, 



CIVIL-SERVICE EXAMINATIONS. 203 

Fourth. That he (or she) possesses the requisite knowledge and 
ability to enter upon the discharge of the duties of such situation 
or employment. 

The fourth article of the certificate shall be determined by the 
Examining Board from the results of the competitive examina- 
tion of the different persons applying for the position to which 
the appointment is to be made. The examination shall have refer- 
ence to the special qualifications, expert or otherwise, required for 
that particular position, and shall be practical in its character. 

Rule 57 — Part I. The general examination for admission to the 
subordinate places in Schedule D (being Part I. of the classifica- 
tion hereto annexed) shall be in writing and on the following sub- 
jects: 

1. Handwriting (as shown in examination papers). 

2. Arithmetic, viz.: addition, subtraction, multiplication, and 
division. 

3. Questions relating to the technical knowledge required for 
the position sought by the applicant. 

4. Experience tending to qualify him for that position. 

In addition to this, the health and physical vigor of the appli- 
cant shall be tested, as hereinafter required. 

The relative weight to be given to these several subjects in 
making up the average standing shall be as follows: 

1. Handwriting 1 

2. Arithmetic 1 

3. Technical knowledge 6 

4. Experience 2 

Total of weights 10 



Rule 57 — Part II. ^o person shall be admitted as a competitor 
for appointment to any of the superior positions in Schedule D 
(being Part II. of the classification hereto annexed), who shall 
not present to the Examining Board satisfactory evidence that he 
has received a diploma or certificate from some reputable institu- 
tion showing that he has pursued in such institution, with credit 
for two years, a course of study adapted to qualify him for the 
position which he seeks, or for which his appointment is desired. 

He may, however, produce in lieu of such diploma or certificate, 



204. HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

certificates from one or more professional men in good standing, 
to the effect that he has pursued with them or under their direc- 
tion, and with credit to himself, a course of study similar to that 
before mentioned for the last three years. 

Those admitted to competition for the superior positions in 
Schedule D shall be examined in writing on the following subjects: 

1. The technical knowledge required for the position to be filled, 
and respecting which the examination is held. 

2. Experience tending to qualify the applicant for that position. 

3. Mathematics. 

4. Example of a report on the subject. 

The relative weight to be given to these several subjects shall 
be as follows: 

1. Technical knowledge 50 

2. Experience 15 

3. , Mathematics 20 

4. Report, etc 15 

Total of weights 100 



SCHEDULE E. 

Rule 58. The general examination for admission to places classi- 
fied in Schedule E shall be in writing and on the following sub- 
jects: 

1. The technical knowledge required for the position to be filled. 

2. Experience tending to qualify the applicant for that position. 
The relative weight given to the subjects shall be as follows: 

Technical knowledge 6 

Experience 4 

Total of weights 10 



CHAPTER VI. 

NOTES ON AN INSPECTION OF A TENEMENT- 
HOUSE. 



Street . No 

Owner Address 

Agent Housekeeper 

Inspection made on Character of house. 

Date inspected Date reported 



B. 

Material of building No. of stories 

No. of apartments No. of rooms 

No. of families. No. of adults 

No. of children of 2-12 years. . . No. of children under 2 years. 

C. 

Size of lot Size of house 

Size of yard Size of air-shafts 

Size of halls Size of water-closet apartments 

Size of main rooms Size of bedrooms 

Size of kitchens Cellar 

Size of windows : rooms Halls 

" " " w.c. apmts . . . Cellar 



D. LIGHT AND VENTILATION. 



Halls Cellar 

Bedrooms Kitchens 

Main rooms W.C. apartments 

205 



206 HANDBOOK OK SANITATION. 

Air-space. 

Main rooms Bedrooms 

Apartments W.C. apartments. . 

How, lighted at night. 

Halls Rooms 

How heated. 

Halls Rooms 



E. PLUMBING. 



House-drain : Material Size ' 

Location Position 

How supported. . . Fall 

Joints of lengths. With soil- and waste-pipes. 

With house-sewer. Rain-leader 

Main trap.. Fresh-air inlet 

Soil : w r aste : How many lines. . Materials 

Vent-pipes : Sizes Location 

Joints Extension 

Connection with 

traps With house-drain 

Rain-leader : Material Location 

Joints Trapped 



Fixtures. 

Sinks No Materials 

Enclosed ? Backs 

Traps, kind Material 

Size Joint to fixture 

Joint to main waste How far from fixture?. 

Water-closets, No Type 

Seats Traps 

Size Material 

Connection with fixture With main soil-pipe 

How flushed? Capacity of cisterns. . . , 

Size of flush-pipe Cisterns how far? 

Tank. 

Material Capacity 

Location Cover 

Overflow How supplied ? 



INSPECTION OF A TENEMENT-HOUSE. 



207 



Water-supply. 

Size of main pipe Material 

Size of branches Material 

Remarks 



Yard 

Fire-eseapes 
Air-shafts . 
Cellar floor. 
Ceilings . . . 
Woodsheds, 
Any one liv 
Halls: 

Roof: 



F. CONDITION. 

.flagged, graded, drained? 



Chimney : 
Rooms : 
W.C. Apmts, 

Plumbing : 



Walls 

Windows 

etc Gratings and doors . 

ing in cellar ? Permit ? 

Floors . Walls 

Ceilings Wainscoting 

Material Condition 

Washroof Eaves gutter 

Doors Skylight 

Size Height above roof. . 

Material Condition 

Flooring General cleanliness. . 

Walls Ceilings 

: Floor material. . . . Condition 

Walls Ceilings 

Windows Space under w.c 

House-drain Sinks 

Soil-pipe Water-closets 

Waste-pipe Tank 

Vent-pipe Water-supply pipe . . 

Rain-leader Faucets 

Sink traps Fresh-air inlet 

W. C. traps 



Remarks 



CHAPTER VII. 

EXAMPLE OF A EEPOET OF AN INSPECTION OF 
A TENEMENT-HOUSE. 



Department of of the City of 

Complaint and report of Inspector in reference to premises. 



I, John Jones, holding the position of Tenement Inspector in the 

Department of of the City of do report 

that on the 19. . I personally examined 

and carefully inspected the premises situated at 

said premises consist of a tenement-house of 18 families of which 

Mr ^. ... is owner and 

responsible; and I herewith respectfully submit the following re- 
port of the conditions found which are in my opinion dangerous 
to life and detrimental to health., and are in violation to the 
tenement-house law, viz. : 

That the halls are not sufficiently ventilated, there being no 
windows to the outer air, nor any ventilators in roof over halls. 

That the 2d floor hallway is dark during daytime, and that no 
light is kept burning at night in the entrance and 3d floor halls. 

That the underground earthenware house-drain in cellar is 
defective, allowing foul gases and liquids to escape therefrom. 

That the joints of the iron soil-pipes on 2d floor are defective, 
the connection of the main soil-pipe with the branch soil-pipe from 
3d floor water-closet is made by a cement joint and is defective, al- 
lowing foul gases to escape therefrom. 

That foul gases escape from the holes in the lead traps of sink 
on 1st floor apartment No. 3, of wash-tub in apartment 6, of bath- 
tub in apartment 12; from the holes in the iron main waste-pipe 

208 



INSPECTION OF A TEXEMEXT-HOUSE. 209 

in cellar, and from the defective connection of the iead trap of sink 
in apartment Xo. 18 with the main iron waste-pipe thereat. 

That the long-hopper closets in the halls are old, corroded, and 
cannot be properly cleaned. 

That the waste-pipe from the refrigerator in the store on ground 
floor is connected with the house-drain, allowing toul gases to 
enter refrigerator from house- drain, 

That the yard and the air-shafts on the east and west sides of 
the house are not paved, nor graded and drained, allowing sur- 
face water to stagnate thereon. 

That the rear fire-escape on 3d floor is obstructed with bed- 
ding, etc. 

That the cellar is not cemented and is damp. 

That the walls and ceilings of cellar are dirty and offensive. 

That the floors, the wainscoting, and the painted walls and 
whitewashed ceilings of halls are dirty and offensive. 

That the roof leaks,, causing dampness. 

That the chimney is defective, allowing coal-gas and smoke to 
enter rooms. 

That the paper on walls and ceilings of apartments Xos. 1. 2. 4. 
8, 9. 14, 16, and 18 is dirty and offensive. 

That the tank on roof is not properly covered, and the tank 
dirty with sediments of dirt. etc. 

That there is no housekeeper residing on premises. 

/ herewith respect fully recommend 

That a ventilating skylight be provided in roof over the stair- 
well in the hall, said skylight shall have both ridge ventilators 
and fixed louvers, the glazed surface thereof to be not less than 
25 square feet in area. 

That a light be kept burning in the 2d floor hallway from 8 
a.m. till 10 p.m., and on all other floors from sunset till 10 p.m.. 
and in the entrance hall and the 3d floor from sunset till sunrise 
every night throughout the year. 

That the defective earthenware house-drain be removed, its site 
cleaned and disinfected, and filled in with fresh earth, and re- 
placed by extra heavy cast-iron pipe, at least 6 inches in diameter, 
with all joints properly lead-calked, and connected with the house- 
sewer by a gas-tight joint: and the main iron soil, waste and rain- 



210 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

leader pipes to be connected with said house-drain with proper 
joints gas-tight; and that said house-drain be provided with a 
fresh-air inlet of similar material, at least 4 inches in diameter, 
and with running trap, placed near the front wall of building, 
provided with proper handholes and trap screw-ferrules. 

That the defective joints of the iron soil-pipe on 2d floor be 
recalked gas-tight, and the connection of the lead branch soil-pipe 
of the water-closet with the main soil-pipe thereat be made by a 
brass ferrule, lead-wiped and calked. 

That the holes in the lead traps of sink in apartment No. 3, of 
wash-tub in apartment 6, of bath-tub in apartment 12, be soldered 
gas-tight, the holes in the main iron waste-pipe in cellar be closed 
with iron bands, gas-tight, and the connection of the lead trap of 
sink in apartment No. 16 with main iron waste-pipe be made by 
means of a brass ferrule properly lead-wiped and calked. 

That the old, corroded, and defective long-hopper water-closets 
in the halls be removed, and replaced by new earthenware, flush- 
rim washout water-closets flushed from a proper metal- lined 
flushing cistern properly adjusted over the same with a flush- 
pipe of lj-inch diameter. 

That the waste-pipe from the refrigerator in the store on ground 
floor be disconnected from the house-drain, the opening at discon- 
nection closed gas-tight, and said waste-pipe made to discharge 
into a properly-trapped, sewer-connected, water-supplied, open 
sink. 

That the air-shafts on east and west sides and the yard be 
properly flagged or cemented, and so graded as to discharge all 
surface-water into properly-trapped, sewer-connected drains. 

That all obstructions be removed from the rear fire-escape on 3d 
floor. 

That the floor of cellar be properly cemented and made imper- 
vious to dampness. 

That the walls and ceilings of cellar be cleaned and white- 
washed. 

That the wooden flooring and wainscoting, and the painted 
walls of halls, be thoroughly scrubbed and cleaned, and their ceil- 
ings whitewashed. 

That the roof be repaired so as not to leak. 

That all defects in the chimney be repaired, and the nuisance 
caused by smoke and coal-gas from it entering living rooms be 
abated. 



INSPECTION OF A TENEMENT HOUSE. 211 

That all the dirty paper be removed from the walls and ceil- 
ings of apartments Nos. 1, 2, 4, 8, 9, 14, 16, and 18, and said walls 
and ceilings be either repapered or painted. 

That the tank on roof be emptied, cleaned of all deposits and 
sediments, scrubbed and provided with a properly-fitting air- 
tight cover. 

That a housekeeper be engaged to reside on premises. 

Respectfully submitted, 

John Jones, 
Tenement-house Inspector. 



OHAPTEK VIII. 
CALCULATION OF AEEAS AND CUBIC SPACE. 

Lsr investigating overcrowding of lodging-houses 
or tenements, it is often necessary to find out the cubic 
space of rooms in order to show how many people may 
inhabit them. The following rules will be helpful for 
this purpose : 

The floor-space of a room is the width of the room 
multiplied by its length. 

The cubic space of a square or rectangular room is 
the width multiplied by the length, and the result again 
multiplied by the height. 

The area of a triangle will be the base multiplied by 
^ the height, or the height multiplied by \ the base. 

The cubic space of a triangle equals the area of the 
section multiplied by its depth. 

The area of a circle equals the square of the diam- 
eter multiplied by 0.7854. 

The cubic capacity of a sphere equals the cube of the 
diameter multiplied by .5236. 

Projections of chimneys, furniture, etc., must be de- 
ducted from the cubic space of the room. 

A grown person occupies about 3 cubic feet of space. 

313 



CALCULATION OF AREAS AND CUBIC SPACE. 213 

The minimum of air-space in a lodging-house for each 
individual is 400 cubic feet. 

The minimum of air-space in a workshop for each in- 
dividual is 250 cubic feet. 

The minimum of air-space in a tenement-house for 
each individual is 600 cubic feet. 

The following reprint on the calculation of areas is 
taken from the " Sanitary Record Diary for 1901." 

TRIANGLE. 



Area = Half the product of base and 
height. 

This may be obtained by multiplying 
the base by the height and halving the 
product, or by multiplying the base by 
half the height or the height by half the 
base. 




QUADRILATERAL OF FOUR-SIDED FIGURES. 




Rectangle and square (in both of which 
all angles are square). 

Area = The length multiplied by the 
breadth. 



Rlwnibus or rhomboid (in which 
the opposite sides are parallel). 

Area = The base multiplied by the 
perpendicular height. 




Trapezoid (in which two sides only are 
parallel) . 

Area = The mean length of the parallel 
sides multiplied by the perpendicular dis- 
tance between thexm 



214 



HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 



Trapezium (which has none of its sides 
parallel). 

Area = Half the sum of the perpen- 
diculars multiplied by the diagonal on 
which they fall. 

POLYGONS. 





Irregular polygons may be divided into 
triangles -J ^ [ trapeziums and the areas 
found by the foregoing rules. 



Regular polygons. Area = The sum of the 
sides (perimeter) multiplied by half the per- 
pendicular (drawn from the centre to the mid- 
dle point of any side) or half the perimeter 
multiplied by the perpendicular, or square the 
length of one side and multiply by — 

1*72 if pentagon (5-sided) 
2*598 if hexagon (6-sided) 
3*634 if heptagon (7-sided) 
4*828 if octagon (8-sided) 
6*182 if nonagon (9-sided) 
7 '694 if decagon (10-sided) 



ELLIPSE. 

Area = The long and short diameters multi- 
.j-pN_ G ZiPiAM|T|R\ plied together and the result multiplied by 
.7854. 



CIRCLE. 

Area — Square of diameter multiplied by 
.7854 or square of radius multiplied by 
3-1416. 

Note. — The area of a circle is equal to that 
of a triangle whose base and altitude arej equal 
to the circle's circumference and radius. 




CALCULATION OF AREAS A1\D CUBIC SPACE. 2 1 5 




\ 



SEGMENT OF A CIRCLE. 

Area = The cube of the height divided 

by twice the length of the chord added to 

two-thirds of the product of chord and 

height, or the area of the sector which has 

the same arc, less the area of the triangle 

formed by the radii and the chord. 

Note. — When the segment is greater than 

a semicircle, find the area of the circle and deduct the area of 

the smaller segment. 

SECTOR OF A CIRCLE. 



Area = Half the product of the arc multi- 
plied by the radius, or length of arc multi- 
plied by half the radius, or the number of 
degrees in the arc multiplied by the area of 
the circle and divided by 360. 



CURVILINEAL FIGURES. 

Area = The first ordinate -f- the last 
ordinate + twice the sum of all other odd 
ordinates -f four times the sum of all even 
ordinates, multiplied by one-third of the 
distance between two adjacent ordinates. 

Note. — The ordinates should be drawn 

equidistant and the divisions made even 

in number. In the figure a A is the first 

ordinate, g G the last, b B, d D, and f F the even, and c C and 

e E the odd ordinates. 




A B C E F G 



IRREGULAR FIGURES. 

Area = The mean of the extreme or- 
dinates added to the sum of the inter- 
mediate ones and multiplied by the whole 
length of the figure divided by the num- 
ber of ordinates less one. 

Note. — The areas of other irregular 
figures may be ascertained by dividing the 

latter into squares, triangles, and segments, finding the areas of 
each of these separately, and then adding them together. 



216 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 



CUBIC SPACE. 

Cubic space or contents is arrived at by multiplying the area 
of the base by the perpendicular height when the latter is uniform 
over the whole area. If the contrary be the case, the mean, or 
average, height must be ascertained and the area multiplied by it. 



CHAPTEE IX. 



USEFUL INFORMATION" FOR SANITARY EN- 
GINEERS AND INSPECTORS. 

(Compiled by Gerard J. G. Jensen, C.E.) 

Reprinted from the " Sanitary Record Diary for 1901." 

HYDRO-MEMS, ETC. 



1 cub. ft. of 
fresh water 



1 cub. in. of 
fresh water 



62.425 lb. 
0.557 cwt. 
0.028 ton 
6.2355 gals. 

0.03612 lb. 
0.003607 gals. 



1 gallon = 

1 cwt, 
1 ton 



10 1b. 

0.16 cub. ft. 
276.48 cub. in. 
__ j 1.8 cub. ft. 
_ I 11.2 gals. 
__ ( 35.84 cub. ft. 
" ( 224 gals. 



TABLE OF PRESSURE AND THEORETICAL VELOCITY OF 
WATER UNDER VARIOUS HEADS. 



Head of 


Pressure 


Velocity 


Head of 


Pressure 


Velocity 


water 


in lb. per 


in feet per 


water 


in lb. per 


in feet per 


in ft. 


sq. in. 


second. 


in ft. 


sq. in. 


second. 


1 


0.4335 


8.025 


17 


7.369 


33.088 


2 


0.867 


11.349 


18 


7.803 


34.047 


3 


1.30 


13.90 


19 


8.236 


34.98 


4 


1.734 


16.05 


20 


8.670 


35.889 


5 


2.1675 


17.945 


25 


10.837 


40.125 


6 


2.601 


19.657 


30 


13.005 


43.954 


7 


3.034 


21.232 


35 


15.172 


47.476 


8 


3.468 


22.698 


40 


17.340 


50.755 


9 


3.901 


24.075 


45 


19.507 


53.833 


10 


4.335 


25.377 


50 


21.675 


56.745 


11 


4.768 


26.615 


55 


23.842 


59.515 


12 


5.202 


27.799 


60 


26.010 


62.161 


18 


5.635 


28.935 


70 


30.345 


67.142 


14 


6.069 


30.027 


80 


34 680 


71.778 


15 


6.502 


31.081 


90 


39.015 


76.131 


16 


6.936 


32.10 


100 


43.350 


80.25 



317 



218 



HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 



DRAINAGE. 

The velocity of the flow in drains should be from 3 ft. to 4.5 ft. 
per second. 

An easy rule for determining the proper inclination at which 
drains should be laid is to multiply the diameter of the drain (in 
inches) by 10. The result will be the number of feet in which the 
drain should fall 1 ft. ; thus, 

4 in. = 1 in 40. 6 in. =1 in 60. 



TABLE OP FALL NECESSARY TO OBTAIN CERTAIN 
VELOCITIES (IN FEET PER SECOND) IN DRAINS 
RUNNING FULL OR HALF FULL. 



Dia. of 


id 




iO 




id 




id 




drain in 


c* 


CO 


CO 


"0* 


Tf 


Hi 


to 


«© 


inches. 


II 


II 


II 


II 


II 


II 


II 


II 




u 


p^ 


u 


^ 


u 


fc> 


u 


^ 




lin 


lin 


lin 


lin 


lin 


lin 


lin 


lin 


4 


129 


92 


68 


53 


42 


34 


29 


24 


5 


161 


115 


85 


66 


52 


. 42 


36 


30 


6 


193 


137 


102 


80 


62 


51 


43 


36 


9 


290 


206 


154 


119 


95 


J77 


65 


54 


12 


386 


275 


205 


159 


127 


103 


86 


72 



RELATIVE DISCHARGING POWER OF PIPES. 
(When the fall and the length of the pipes remain constant, the dis- 
charge varies as the square root of the fifth power of the diameter, 
or as d 2 . 5 ). 
Diameter of pipe. d 2 . 5 . 

2} 9.88 

3 15.59 

4 32.0 

5 55.9 

6 88.18 

9 2430 

12 498.8 

15 871.4 

18 1375.0 

24 2822.0 

30 4930.0 

36 7776.0 



USEFUL INFORMATION. 



219 



TABLE OF CONTENTS OF WELLS IN GALLONS. 

Diameter Contents 

of Well. in gals, per ft. 

ft. in. of Depth. 

2 6... 30.62 

3 4410 

3 6 60.02 

4 78.40 

4 6 99.32 

5 122.50 

5 6..... 148.22 

6 176.40 



CAPACITY AND USUAL PROPORTIONS OF CISTERNS. 



Contents. 


Length. 


Width. 


Depth. 


Contents. 


Length. 


Width. 


Depth. 


Gals. 


Ft. 


In. 


Ft. In. 


Ft. 


In. 


Gals. 


Ft. 


In. 


Ft. 


In. 


Ft. In. 


20 


1 


10 


1 4 


1 


4 


150 


3 


6 


2 


7 


2 8 


25 


2 





1 5 


1 


5 


175 


3 


8 


2 


9 


2 9 


30 


2 





1 6 


1 


7 


200 


3 


10 


2 


11 


2 11 


40 


2 


3 


1 8 


1 


8 


250 


4 


2 


3 


3 


3 


50 


2 


5 


1 10 


1 


10 


300 


4 


6 


3 


7 


3 


60 


2 


6 


1 11 


2 





350 


5 


6 


3 


6 


3 


70 


2 


8 


2 2 


2 





400 


6 





3 


6 


3 2 


80 


2 


10 


2 3 


2 





500 


6 


6 


3 


8 


3 6 


90 


3 





2 5 


2 





600 


7 





4 





3 6 


100 


3 


2 


2 3 


2 


3 


800 


8 


1 


4 


7 


3 7 


125 


3 


4 


2 7 


2 


4 


1000 


9 


1 


5 


1 


3 7 



FORMULA FOR CALCULATING THE CAPACITY OF 
DRAIN AND OTHER CYLINDRICAL PIPES. 

D = Diameter of pipe in inches. 

A = Area of pipe in square inches. 

L = Contents per foot of pipe in lb. 

F= " " " cub. ft. 

# = " " ■■ " gallons. 

A_ 
2.31* 
D 2 X .034. 



: Z>* X .34 
D 9 X .00544 



O 



220 



HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 



TABLE OF VELOCITY (IN FEET PER MINUTE) AND DIS- 
CHARGE (IN GALLONS PER MINUTE) OF DRAINS, 
WITH VARIOUS FALLS, WHEN RUNNING FULL. 



Diameter. 


4 Inches. 


5 Inches. 


6 Inches. 


Fall. 


Velocity 


Discharge. 


Velocity 
441 


Discharge. 


Velocity 


Discharge. 


1 in 20 


395 


214.90 


375.40 


481 


589.18 


1 in 25 


353 


192.07 


395 


335.52 


432 


529.15 


lin 30 


322 


175.21 


360 


306.07 


395 


483 84 


lin 35 


298 


162.18 


333 


283.31 


366 


448.34 


1 in 40 


278 


151.25 


311 


264.21 


342 


418.95 


lin 45 


261 


142.02 


291 


248.09 


322 


394.43 


lin 50 


246 


134.04 


278 


234.15 


307 


375.46 


1 in 60 


226 


123.11 


253 


215.06 


279 


341.20 


lin 70 


209 


113.88 


234 


198.93 


257 


314.31 


1 in 80 


194 


105.71 


217 


184.66 


239 


292.28 


1 in 90 


182 


99.15 i 


203 


173.20 


225 


275.18 


1 in 100 


172 


93.72 


192 


163.71 


213 


260.52 



Diameter. 


9 Inches. 


12 Inches. 


Fall. 


Velocity. 


Discharge. 


Velocity. 


Discharge. 


lin 20 


582 


1604.30 


664 


3254.16 


lin 25 


525 


1447.60 


600 


2940.28 


lin 30 


481 


1326.00 


551 


2700.67 


lin 35 


446 


1229.30 


513 


2514.09 


1 in 40 


418 


1152.53 


481 


2357.47 


lin 45 


395 


1088.80 


454 


2225.19 


lin 50 


375 


1033.90 


432 


2115.98 


lin 60 


343 


945.98 


395 


1935.03 


lin 70 


317 


874.22 


366 


1792.75 


lin 80 


296 


816.19 


342 


1675.44 


lin 90 


279 


769.39 


322 


1577.47 


1 in 100 


264 


728.21 


306 


1498.85 



PAET FOUR. 
SANITARY LAW. 



CHAPTEK I. 

SANITAKY LAW. 

"The broad general principle upon which all modern sanitary 
legislation rests is that every member of the community is en- 
titled to protection in regard to his health, just as he is in regard 
to his liberty and property, and that on the other hand his liberty 
and his control of his property are only guaranteed to him on 
the condition that they shall be so exercised as not to interfere 
with the similar rights of others, nor be injurious to the com- 
munity at large." — Dr. J. S. Billings in his introduction to 
Buck's " Hygiene and Public Health." 

Sanitary law is based upon the police power of the 
State. Sanitary supervision is one of the essential func- 
tions of organized society. The very existence of so- 
ciety depends upon the prevention of disease and the 
preservation of the health of its members, and as this 
cannot possibly be attained by the efforts of the individ- 
ual alone, it follows that it is the duty and province of 
the social organization, or the State, to guard the health 

221 



222 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

of the community by legislative enactments and general 
sanitary supervision. 

Through ignorance, indolence, egotism, criminal neg- 
ligence, or indifference to the rights and health of 
others, individuals may commit such acts, or let such acts 
be committed and such conditions prevail as may be- 
come a public nuisance, detrimental to the health and 
dangerous to the lives of their fellow men; it is then 
the right and duty of the State to step in and compel 
general obedience to the laws for the prevention of pub- 
lic nuisances and dangers to the public health. 

Moreover, there are certain phases of social life that 
are the offspring of communal organization, such as 
the drainage of unhealthy areas, the water-supply of 
urban populations, the quarantine against infectious dis- 
eases, etc., which naturally come under the general sani- 
tary control of the State, and which demand certain 
legislation for their supervision. 

Hence, sanitary law is as old as society, and sanitary 
legislation can be traced back to the dawn of history, far 
back into the remotest times of antiquity, as we can see 
from the wise sanitary legislation of Moses, Solon, and 
Licurgus and of the great Roman sanitarians. 

The essential difference, however, between the sani- 
tary laws of those great law-givers and the legislation of 
to-day, is that the laws of the ancient legislators were 
but compulsory enactments of individuals, or small 
parts of the community, while the laws of to-day are 
based upon the scientific knowledge which is the prop- 
erty of all, and upon the general consent of all the peo- 
ple, whose direct representatives the legislators are. 



SANITARY LAW. 223 

Especially is this the case in the United States, with its 
enlightened representative government; here sanitary- 
law truly rests upon the soundest foundation, that of 
the general welfare of the whole people. 

Owing to the State organization of the United States, 
there is no uniformity in sanitary legislation as there is 
on the Continent, or in England; and we have here Fed- 
eral, State, County and Municipal sanitary laws, at 
times one conflicting with another. 

With the establishment of boards of health in every 
State of the Union, great progress has been made toward 
a uniformity in sanitary legislation and organization, 
and it is to be hoped that the establishment of a national 
board of health will, in the near future, culminate in the 
enactment of a general, uniform and all-embracing 
national sanitary law. 



CHAPTEE II. 
SANITAEY OEGANIZATION. 

There are three forms of sanitary organization in 
the United States ; State, County, and Municipal. 

All the States of the Union, except Georgia, Idaho, 
Montana, Oregon, and Wyoming, have State organiza- 
tions in sanitary matters, in the form of State boards of 
health. (Chapin.) The following States were the first 
to establish State boards of health: Louisiana in 1855; 
Massachusetts in 1869; California in 1870. (S. W. 
Abbott.) 

The following States have county sanitary organiza- 
tions : Alabama, California, Colorado, Connecticut, 
Delaware, Idaho, Indiana, Kentucky, Kansas, Louisi- 
ana, Maryland, Mississippi, Montana, North Carolina, 
North Dakota, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, 
Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, and Wyoming. 
(Chapin.) 

Most towns, cities, and municipalities in the Union 
are empowered by the States to have some form of sani- 
tary organization, usually a board of health having com- 
plete supervision over all sanitary matters in the local- 
ity. As a rule, the municipal boards of health are inde- 
pendent of any State interference, although they get 

224 



SANITARY ORGANIZATION. 225 

their powers from the State. The State boards of health 
have, as a rule, an advisory function, their executive 
function, if they have any, being limited to supervision 
of river pollution, food adulteration, dairy products, etc. 

The local municipal boards of health have, not 
only executive powers, but under the laws of the 
State, or by special charters, these boards of health have 
also legislative powers. The result of the legislative 
powers being delegated by the State to municipal boards 
of health is seen in the various sanitary codes of the 
municipalities, some of these being extensive and far- 
reaching. 

The sanitary matters which come directly under the 
jurisdiction of the municipal boards of health are as 
follows : Water-supply, sewerage, street-cleaning, 
building and construction, plumbing, local and specific 
nuisances, supervision of foods, meat, milk, etc.; control 
of infectious diseases ; school, factory, tenement-house 
and other inspections. In large cities the enumerated 
sanitary divisions are separated and given into the con- 
trol of other departments than the boards of health 
proper. Thus, in New York City, owing to the vast 
proportion of the municipality and the complexity of 
sanitary w r ork, there are special municipal departments 
on water-supply, sewers, buildings, tenement-houses, 
etc. 

The organization of a special department having 
charge of tenement-houses exclusively is a new depart- 
ure in sanitary organization, and is due to the special 
conditions prevailing in New York City, with its 45,000 
tenement-houses. 



226 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

Sanitary legislation in New York is in many respects 
far in advance of that in other cities, many of the sani- 
tary laws of New York serving as models for other 
municipalities. 

The following extracts, therefore, from the " Tene- 
ment-house Law," the organization of the " Tenement- 
house Departments/' the " Plumbing Regulations," as 
well as the practice on " Disinfection," " Milk and 
School Inspection," will be of interest to students in 
Sanitation. 



I. 

TENEMENT-HOUSE LAW. 

ENACTED BY THE LEGISLATURE OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK, 1901. 
Chapter 334 of the Laws of the State of New York for 1901. 



CHAPTER I. 

DEFINITIONS. 

Sec. 1. Short title and application. This act may be cited as 
the Tenement-house Act, and its provisions shall apply to cities 
of the first-class. 

Sec. 2. Definitions. Certain words used in this act are defined 
for the purposes thereof as follows: 

(1) A tenement-house is any house or building, or portion 
thereof, which is rented, leased, let or hired out, to be occupied, 
or is occupied as the home or residence of three families or more 
living independently of each other, and doing their cooking upon 
the premises, or by more than two families upon any floor, so 
living and cooking, but having a common right in the halls, stair- 
ways, yards, water-closets or privies, or some of them. 

(2) A yard is an open unoccupied space on the same lot with a 
tenement-house, between the extreme rear line of the house and 
the rear line of the lot. 

(3) A court is an open unoccupied space, other than a yard, on 
the same lot with a tenement-house. A court not extending to 
the street or yard is an inner court. A court extending to the 
street or yard is an outer court. If it extends to the street it is a 
street court. If it extends to the yard it is a yard court. 

(4) A shaft includes exterior and interior shafts, whether for 
air, light, elevator, dumb-waiter, or any other purpose. A vent- 
shaft is one used solely to ventilate or light a water-closet com- 
partment or bathroom. 



228 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION 

(5) A public hall is a hall, corridor or passageway not within 
an apartment. 

(6) A stair hall includes the stairs, stair landings and those 
portions of the public halls through which it is necessary to pass 
in going between the entrance floor and the roof. 

(7) A basement is a story partly but not more than one-half 
below the level of the curb. 

(8) A cellar is a story more than one-half below the level of 
the curb. 

(9) A fireproof tenement-house is one the walls of which are 
constructed of brick, stone, iron or other hard incombustible ma- 
terial, and in which there are no wood beams or lintels, and in 
which the floors, roofs, stair halls and public halls are built en- 
tirely of brick, stone, iron or other hard incombustible material, 
and in which no woodwork or other inflammable material is 
used in any of the partitions, furrings or ceilings. But this 
definition shall not be construed as prohibiting, elsewhere than 
in the stair halls or entrance halls, the use of wooden flooring 
on top of the fireproof floors, or the use of wooden sleepers, nor as 
prohibiting wooden handrails and hard-wood treads such as de- 
scribed in section eighteen of this act. _ 

(10) The word shall is always mandatory, and not directory, 
and denotes that the house shall be maintained in all respects 
according to the mandate, as long as it continues to be a tene- 
ment-house. 

(11) Wherever the words, charter, ordinances, regulations, de- 
partment of buildings, department of health, department of water- 
supply, fire department, corporation counsel, city treasury or fire 
limits occur in this act, they shall be construed as if followed by 
the words " of the city in which the tenement-house is situated." 

Sec. 3. Buildings converted or altered. A building not erected 
for use as a tenement-house, if hereafter converted or altered to 
such use, shall thereupon become subject to all the provisions of 
this act affecting tenement-houses hereafter erected. 

Sec. 4. Buildings in process of erection. A tenement-house not 
now completed, but the excavation for which shall have been com- 
menced in good faith on or before the first day of June, nineteen 
hundred and one, after approval of the plans therefor by the de- 
partment of buildings and the first tier of beams of which shall 
have been set on or before the first day of August, nineteen hundred 



TENEMENT HOUSE LAW. 229 

and one, shall be subject only to the provisions of this act affect- 
ing now-existing tenement-houses; provided, that the plans for the 
said house were filed in said department on or before the tenth 
day of April, nineteen hundred and one, and were in accordance 
with the laws in force at the time of filing, and that the building 
is built in accordance with such laws. 

Sec. # 5. Corner lots. When a lot is situated at a corner of two 
streets, if it has more frontage upon one street than the other, the 
lesser frontage shall be deemed the width and the greater frontage 
the depth of the lot within the meaning of this act; and when 
the width is greater than twenty-five feet, the excess over said 
twenty-five feet shall not be deemed part of a corner lot, but shall 
be subject to the provisions of this act in relation to lots other 
than corner lots. 

CHAPTER II. 

PROTECTION FROM FIRE. 

Title I. 
Provisions Applicable Only to Tenement-houses Hereafter Erected. 

Sec. 11. Fireproof tenements, when required. Every tenement- 
house hereafter erected exceeding fifty-seven feet, or exceeding 
five stories or parts of stories, in height above the curb level, shall 
be a fireproof tenement-house, nor shall any tenement-house be 
altered so as to exceed such height without being made a fireproof 
tenement-house; provided, that this section shall not apply to a 
building of a height not exceeding sixty- seven feet, and not ex- 
ceeding six stories or parts of stories in height above the curb 
level if such building shall have a frontage exceeding forty feet. 
A cellar is not a story within the meaning of this section. 

Sec. 12. Fire-escapes. Every non-fireproof tenement-house here- 
after erected, unless provided with fireproof outside stairways 
directly accessible to each apartment, shall have fire-escapes lo- 
cated and constructed as in this section required, except that 
tenement-houses that are less than four stories in height and 
which also do not contain accommodations for more than four 
families in all, may be equipped with such other iron, steel, or 
wire cable fire-escapes as may be approved by the department of 
buildings, such escapes must be capable of sustaining two thou- 



230 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

sand pounds, and be of sufficient length to reach from the top 
floor to the ground, and with rungs not more than twelve inches 
apart and not less than fifteen inches in length. 

(1) The fire-escapes shall be located both on the front and rear 
of the building at each story above the ground floor, and where 
there is an apartment not containing any room fronting on either 
the street or yard, an additional fire-escape shall be provided 
for such apartment. Where, however, there are not more than 
four rooms in a line comprising part of one apartment, and the 
apartment extends from the street to the yard, the rear fire-escape 
may be omitted. Fire-escapes may project into the public high- 
way to a distance not greater than four feet beyond the building 
line. 

(2) The fire-escapes shall consist of outside open iron balconies 
and stairways. The stairways shall be placed at an angle of not 
more than sixty degrees, with steps not less than six inches in 
width and twenty inches in length, and with a rise of not more 
than nine inches. The balcony on the top floor, except in case of 
a front fire-escape, shall be provided with a goose-neck ladder 
leading from said balcony to and above the roof. 

(3) Balconies. The balconies shall not be less than three feet 
in width, taking in at least one window of each apartment at 
each story above the ground floor. They shall be below and not 
more than one foot below the window sills, and extend in front 
of and not less than nine inches beyond each window. There 
shall be a landing not less than twenty-four inches square at the 
head and foot of each stairway. The stairway opening on each 
platform shall be of a size sufficient to provide clear headway. 

(4) Floors of balconies. The floors of balconies shall be of 
wrought iron or steel slats not less than one and a half inches by 
three- eighths of an inch, placed not more than one and one-quarter 
inches apart, and well secured -and riveted to iron battens one and 
a half inches by three- eighths of an inch, nor over three feet apart 
and riveted at the intersection. The openings for stairways in all 
buildings shall not be less than twenty-one inches wide and 
thirty-six inches long, and such openings shall have no covers of 
any kind. The platforms or balconies shall be constructed and 
erected to safely sustain in all their parts a safe load at a ratio 
of four to one, of not less than eighty pounds per square foot of 
surface, 



TEyEMEXT-HOUSE LAW. 231 

(5) Railings. The outside lop rail shall extend around the en- 
tire length of the platform and in all cases shall go through the 
wall at each end, and be properly secured by nuts and four-inch 
square washers at least three-eighths of an inch thick, and 
no top rail shall be connected at angles by cast iron. The 
top rail of balconies shall be one and three-quarter inches by 
one-half inch of wrought iron, or one and a half inch angle iron 
one-quarter inch thick. The bottom rails shall be one and 
one-half inches by three-eighths of an inch wrought iron, or 
one and a half inch angle iron, one-quarter inch thick, well leaded 
into the wall. The standards or filling- in bars shall not be less 
than one-half inch round or square wrought iron, well riveted to 
the top and bottom rails and platform frame. Such standards or 
filling-in bars shall be securely braced by outside brackets at suit- 
able intervals, and shall be placed not mora than six inches from 
centres: the height of railings shall in no case be less than two 
feet nine inches. 

(6) Stairways. The stairways shall be constructed and erected 
to fully sustain in all their parts a safe load at a ratio of four 
to one of not less than one hundred pounds per step, with the 
exception of the tread, which must safely sustain at said ratio a 
load of t\\ o hundred pounds. The treads shall be flat open treads 
not less tnan six inches wide and with a rise of not more than 
nine inches. The stairs shall be not less than twenty inches wide 
The strings shall not be less than three-inch channels of iron or 
steel, or other shape equally strong, and shall rest upon and be 
fastened to a bracket, which shall be fastened through the wall 
as hereinafter provided. The strings shall be securely fastened 
to the balcony at the top, and the steps in all cases shall be 
double-riveted or bolted to the strings. The stairs shall have 
three-quarter inch handrails of wrought iron, well braced. 

(7) Brackets. The brackets shall not be less than one-half 
inch by one and three-quarter inches wrought iron placed edge- 
wise, or one and three-quarter inch angle iron, one-quarter inch 
thick, well braced; they shall not be more than four feet apart, 
and shall be braced by means of not less than three-quarters of 
an inch square wrought iron, and shall extend two-thirds of the 
width of the respective balconies or brackets. The brackets shall 
go through the wall and be turned down three inches, or be prop- 
erly secured by nuts and four-inch square washers at least three- 



232 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION, 

eighths of an inch thick. On new buildings the brackets shall be 
set as the walls are being built. When brackets are put on tene- 
ment-houses already erected, the part going through the w r all 
shall not be less than one inch in diameter with screw nuts and 
washers not less than five inches square and one-half an inch thick. 

(8) Drop-ladders. A proper drop-ladder shall be required from 
the lower balcony when the floor of such balcony is more than 
fourteen feet above the sidewalk or ground. 

(9) Painting. All the parts of such fire-escapes shall receive 
not less than two coats of paint, one in the shop and one after 
erection. All fire-escape balconies shall contain a plate firmly 
fastened to the standards or filling-in bars near the top railing 
in front of each window, such plate to contain in plain, large, 
prominent, raised letters, each letter to be not less than one-half 
an inch in length, the following words : " Any one placing any 
encumbrance on this balcony will be fined ten dollars." 

(13) Bulkheads. Every tenement-house hereafter erected shall 
have in the rpof a fireproof bulkhead with a fireproof door to 
the same, and shall have fireproof stairs with a guide or hand- 
rail leading to the roof, and such stairs shall be kept free from 
encumbrance at all times. No bulkhead doorjshall at any time 
be locked with a key, but it may be fastened on the inside by 
movable bolts or hooks. 

Sec. 14. Stairs and public halls. Every tenement-house here- 
after erected shall have at least one flight of stairs extending 
from the entrance floor to the roof, and the stairs and public halls 
therein shall each be at least three feet wide in the clear. 

Sec. 15. Stairways in non-fireproof buildings. Every non-fire- 
proof tenement-house hereafter erected containing over eighty 
rooms shall also have an additional flight of stairs for every addi- 
tional eighty rooms or fraction thereof; if said house contains not 
more than one hundred and twenty rooms, in lieu of an addi- 
tional stairway the stairs and public halls throughout the entire 
building may each be at least one-half wider than is specified in 
sections fourteen and twenty of this act. 

Sec. 16. Stairways in fireproof buildings. Every fireproof 
tenement-house hereafter erected containing over one hundred and 
twenty rooms shall have an additional flight of stairs for every 
additional one hundred and twenty rooms or fraction thereof; but 
if said house contains not more than one hundred and eighty 



TENEMENT-HOUSE LAW. 233 

rooms, in lieu of an additional stairway the stairs and public 
halls throughout the entire building may each be at least one- 
half wider than is specified in sections fourteen and twenty of 
this act ; and a power passenger elevator, enclosed in a separate 
shaft from the stairs, and distant not less than thirty-five feet 
from the main flight of stairs, shall be deemed the equivalent of 
an additional flight. 

Sec. 17. Each flight of stairs mentioned in the last three sec- 
tions shall have an entrance on the entrance floor from the street 
or street court, or from an inner court which connects directly 
with the street. All stairs shall be constructed with a rise of 
not more than seven and one-half inches and with treads not less 
than ten inches wide and not less than three feet long in the 
clear. W 'here winders are used., all treads at a point eighteen 
inches from the strings on the well side shall be at least ten 
inches wide. , 

Sec. IS. Stair halls. The stair halls in all non-fireproof as well 
as fireproof tenement-houses hereafter erected shall be constructed 
of fireproof material throughout, except as in this section speci- 
fied. The risers^ strings and banisters shall be of metal or stone. 
The treads shall be of metal,, slate or stone, or of hard wood not 
an two inches thick. Wooden hand rails to stairs will be 
permitted if constructed of hard wood. The floors of all stair 
halls shall be constructed of iron or steel beams and fireproof fill- 
ing, and no non-fireproof flooring or sleepers shall be permitted. 
All windows on stair halls opening on courts shall be of good 
quality wire-glass in frames of fireproof material. 

Sec. 19. In every non-fireproof tenement-house hereafter erected 
all stair halls shall be enclosed on all sides with brick walls. 
The doors opening from stair halls shall be fireproof and self- 
closing, and if provided with glass such glass shall be good quality 
wire-glass. There shall be no transom or movable sash opening 
from a stair hall to any other part of the house. Except on the 
entrance floor,, each stair hall shall be shut off from all non-fire- 
proof portions of the public halls and from all other non-fireproof 
parts of the building, on each story, by self-closing fireproof doors, 
and if gla>s is used in such doors it shall be of good quality wire- 
glass. 

Sec. 20. Entrance halls. Every entrance hall in a tenement- 
house hereafter erected shall be at least three feet six inches wide 



234 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

in the clear, from the entrance up to and including the stair en- 
closure, and beyond this point at least three feet wide in the 
clear. It shall be enclosed with brick walls, and shall comply with 
all the conditions of the preceding sections of this act as to the 
construction of stair halls. If such entrance hall is the only en- 
trance to more than one flight of stairs, said hall shall be increased 
one foot in width in every part for each such additional flight of 
stairs. In every such house, access shall be had from the street 
to the yard, either in a direct line or through a court. 

Sec. 21. First tier of beams. In all non-fireproof as well as 
fireproof tenement-houses hereafter erected five stories or more 
in height, exclusive of the cellar, the first floor above the cellar, 
or, if there be no cellar, above the lowest story, shall be con- 
structed fireproof with iron or steel beams and fireproof flooring; 
and the bottom flanges and all exposed portions of such iron or 
steel beams below the abutments of the floor arches or filling 
shall be entirely encased with hard-burnt clay or porous terra 
cotta, or with metal lath properly secured and plastered on the 
under side. In all non-fireproof tenement-houses hereafter erected 
less than fixe stories in height, where the first floor above the 
cellar, or, if there be no cellar, above the lowest story, is not con- 
structed fireproof with iron or steel beams and fireproof flooring, 
the cellar ceiling of said tenement-house shall be lathed with wire 
or metal lath and plastered thereon with two coats of brown 
mortar of good materials, or shall be covered with plaster boards 
not less than one-half inch in thickness, made of plaster and 
strong fibre, and all joints made true and well-pointed. 

Sec. 22. Partitions, Construction of. In all non-fireproof tene- 
ment-houses hereafter erected, fore-and-aft stud partitions which 
rest directly over each other snail run through the wooden floor 
beams and rest upon the plate of the partition below, and* shall 
have the studding filled in solid between the uprights to the depth 
of the floor beams with suitable incombustible materials. In all 
fireproof tenement-houses hereafter erected, all partitions shall 
rest directly upon the fireproof floor construction, and extend to 
the fireproof beam filling above. 

Sec. 23. Cellar stairs in non-fireproof buildings. In non-fire- 
proof tenement-houses hereafter erected there shall be no inside 
stairs communicating between the cellar or other lowest story 
and the floor next above, but such stairs shall in every case be 



TEXEMEXT-HOUSE LAW. 235 

located outside the building, and if enclosed shall be constructed 
entirely fireproof and be enclosed in a fireproof enclosure with 
fireproof self-closing doors at all openings. 

Sec. 24. Cellar stairs in fireproof buildings. In every fire- 
proof tenement-house hereafter erected the stairs communicating 
between the cellar and other lowest story and the floor next 
above, if not located underneath the stairs leading to the upper 
stories, may be placed inside of the said building; provided, that 
the portion of the cellar or other lowest story into which said 
stairs lead is entirely shut off by fireproof walls from those por- 
tions thereof which are used for the storage of fuel, or in which 
heating appliances, boilers or machinery are located. All open- 
ings in such walls shall be provided with self-closing fireproof doors. 

Sec. 26. Closet under first-story stairs. In non-fireproof tene- 
ment-houses hereafter erected no closet of any kind shall be con- 
structed under any staircase leading from the first story, exclu- 
sive of the cellar, to the upper stories, but such space shall be 
left entirely open and kept clear and free from encumbrance. 

Sec. 26. Cellar entrance. In every tenement-house hereafter 
erected there shall be an entrance to the cellar or other lowest 
story from the outside of the said building. In such tenement- 
houses, unless the entire ceiling and floor above the cellar or 
other lowest story is constructed fireproof, all receptacles for fuel 
or storage in the cellar or other lowest story shall be constructed 
entirely of fireproof materials. 

Sec. 27. Fire-stops. In tenement-houses hereafter erected, in all 
walls all the courses of brick from the under side of the floor 
beams to the top of the same shall project a distance of at least 
two inches beyond the inside face of the wall, so as to provide 
an effective fire-stop: and wherever floor beams run parallel to 
a wall such beams shall always be kept at least two and one-half 
inches away from the inside line of the wall, and the space be- 
tween the beams and the wall shall be built up solidly with brick- 
work from the under side of the floor beams to the top of the 
same, so as to form an effective fire-stop. 

Sec. 28. Wooden tenement-houses. Within the fire limits no 
wooden tenement-house shall hereafter be erected, and no wooden 
building not now used as a tenement-house shall hereafter be al- 
tered or converted to such use. Outside of the fire limits, wooden 
tenement-houses not exceeding two stories in height, exclusive of 



236 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

the cellar, may be erected, but shall not provide accommodations 
for, or be occupied by, more than four families in all, or more than 
two families on any floor; and such houses need not comply with 
the foregoing provisions of this act in reference to protection from 
fire nor with the provisions of sections twenty-nine, thirty, thirty- 
one, thirty-two, thirty-six, thirty-seven and thirty-eight of this 
act. 

Title II. 
Provisions Applicable Only to Noiv-existing Tenement-houses. 

Sec. 29. Fire-escapes. Every now-existing non-fireproof tene- 
ment-house, unless provided with fireproof outside stairways di- 
rectly accessible to each apartment, shall have fire-escapes located 
and constructed as described in section twelve of this act. But 
a fire-escape now erected upon such house shall be deemed suffi- 
cient except as provided in the next two sections. 

Sec. 30. In every now-existing non-fireproof tenement-house 
there shall be a separate fire-escape directly accessible to each de- 
partment, exclusive of fire-escapes in air shafts and courts; and 
a party-wall fire-escape balcony on the rear of~ the building con- 
necting with the window of an adjoining building shall be deemed 
a sufficient fire-escape only when the two buildings are completely 
separated by an unpieced fire-wall throughout their entire height 
and length. All wooden floor slats and floors in fire-escape bal- 
conies shall be replaced by proper iron slats or floors. No wooden 
balcony or wooden outside stairs shall be deemed part of a lawful 
fire-escape. 

Sec. 31. Whenever a now-existing non-fireproof tenement-house 
is not provided with sufficient means of egress in case of fire, the 
department of buildings may order such additional fire-escapes 
or other means of egress as in its judgment may be necessary. 

Sec. 32. Scuttles, bulkheads and ladders. Every now-existing 
tenement-house shall have in the roof a bulkhead or scuttle con- 
structed as in this section required. No scuttle shall be less in 
size than two feet by three feet, and all scuttles shall be covered 
on the outside with metal and shall be provided with stationary 
iron ladders or stairs leading thereto and easily accessible to all 
tenants of the building and kept free from encumbrance, and all 
scuttles and ladders shall be kept so as to be ready for use at 



TESEMEXT-HOVSE LAW. 237 

ail limes. Every "bulkhead hereafter constructed in a tenement- 
house shall be fireproof with a fireproof door to the same and 
shall have fireproof stairs with a guide or handrail leading to the 
roof, and such stairs shall be kept free from encumbrance at all 
times. Xo scuttle and no bulkhead door shall at any time be 
locked with a key, but either may be fastened on the inside by 
movable bolts or hooks. 

Sec. 33. Stair halls, public halls and entrance halls. If any 
now-existing tenement-house shall be so altered as to increase the 
number of rooms therein by twenty per centum or more, or if 
such building is increased in height, the entire stair halls, entrance 
halls and other public halls of the whole building shall be made 
to conform to the requirements of sections fourteen to twenty, 
inclusive, of this act. 

Sec. 34. Tenements damaged by fire. If any now-existing tene- 
ment-house shall hereafter be damaged by fire or otherwise to 
an amount greater than one-half of the value thereof, exclusive 
of the value of the foundation, such building shall not be repaired 
or rebuilt except in conformity with the foregoing provisions of 
this act for the construction of tenement-houses hereafter erected. 
If the stairs in any now-existing tenement-house shall be damaged 
by fire or otherwise, to an amount greater than one-half of the 
value thereof, the entire stairs in the said tenement-house shall be 
reconstructed in accordance with the provisions of this act for 
stairs in tenement-houses hereafter erected. 

Title III. 

Provisions Applicable to all Tenement-houses Hereafter Erected 
or Now Existing. 

Sec. 35. Fire-escapes. All fire-escapes hereafter constructed 
upon tenement-houses shall be located and constructed as described 
in section twelve of this act. The owner of every tenement -house 
shall keep all the fire-escapes thereon in good order and repair, 
and whenever rusty shall have them properly painted with two 
coats of paint. Xo person shall at any time place any encum- 
brance of any kind before or upon any such fire-escape. 

Sec. 36. Stairways. In every tenement-house all stairways shall 
be provided with proper banisters and railings and kept in good 
repair. 



238 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

Sec. 37. Shafts. All shafts hereafter constructed in tenement- 
houses shall be constructed fireproof throughout, with fireproof 
self-closing doors at all openings, at each story, except window 
openings in vent-shafts; and, if they extend to the cellar, shall 
also be enclosed in the cellar with fireproof walls and fire- 
proof self-closing doors at all openings. In no ease shall any shaft 
be constructed of materials in which any inflammable material 
or substance enters into any of the component parts. But noth- 
ing in this section contained shall be so construed as to require 
such enclosures about elevators or dumb-waiters in the well-hole 
of stairs where the stairs themselves are enclosed in brick or 
stone walls, and are entirely constructed of fireproof materials 
as hereinbefore provided. 

Sec. 38. Plastering behind wainscoting. When wainscoting is 
hereafter placed in any tenement-house, or any building in process 
of alteration into a tenement-house, the surface of the wall or 
partition behind such wainscoting shall be plastered down to the 
floor line, and any intervening space between said plastering and 
said wainscot shall be filled in solid with incombustible material. 

Sec. 39. Wooden buildings on same lot with a tenement-house. 
No wooden building of any kind whatsoever 3hall hereafter be 
placed or built upon the same lot with a tenement-house within 
the fire limits. 

Sec. 40. Combustible materials. No tenement-house, nor any 
part thereof, shall be used as a place of storage for any com- 
bustible article except under such conditions as may be prescribed 
by the fire department, under authority of a written permit issued 
by said department. No tenement-house, nor any part thereof, 
shall be used as a place of storage for any article dangerous to 
life or health, nor for the storage of feed, hay, straw, excelsior or 
cotton, nor for the storage or handling of rags. 

Sec. 41. Bakeries and fat-boiling. No bakery and no place of 
business in which fat is boiled shall be maintained in any tene- 
ment-house which is not fireproof throughout, unless the ceiling 
and side walls of said bakery or of the said place where fat-boiling 
is done are made safe by fireproof materials around the same, 
and there shall be no openings either by door or window, dumb- 
waiter shafts or otherwise, between said bakery or said place 
where fat is boiled in any tenement-house and the other parts of 
the said building. 



TEXEMEXT- HOUSE LAW. 239 

Sec. 42. Other dangerous businesses. All transoms and windows 
opening into halls from any portion of a tenement-house where 
paint, oil, spirituous liquors or drugs are stored for the purpose 
of sale or otherwise shall be glazed with wire-glass, or they shall 
be removed and closed up as solidly as the rest of the wall; and 
all doors leading into any such hall from such portion of said 
house shall be made fireproof. 



CHAPTER III. 

LIGHT AND VEXTILATIOX. 

Title I. 
Provisions Applicable Only to Tenement-houses Hereafter Erected. 

Sec. 51. Percentage of lot occupied. No tenement-house here- 
after erected shall occupy more than ninety per centum of a 
corner lot. or more than seventy per centum of any other lot, 
the measurements in all cases to be taken at the ground level; 
provided, that the space occupied by fire-escapes of the size here- 
inbefore prescribed shall not be deemed a part of the lot occupied. 

Sec. 52. Height. The height of no tenement-house hereafter 
erected shall by more than one-third exceed the width of the 
widest street upon which it stands. Such height shall be the 
perpendicular distance measured in a straight line from the curb 
level to the highest point of the building exclusive of cornices 
and bulkheads, provided such bulkheads are not more than eight 
feet high and do not exceed in area ten per centum of the area of 
the roof: the measurements in all cases shall be taken through 
the centre of the facade of the house. 

Sec. 53. Yards. Behind every tenement-house hereafter erected 
there shall be a yard extending across the entire width of the 
lot and at every point open from the ground to the sky unob- 
structed, except that fire-escapes or unenclosed outside stairs may 
project not over three feet from the rear line of the house. The 
depth of said yard, measured from the extreme rear wall of the 
house to rear line of the lot^ shall be as set forth in the two fol- 
lowing sections. 

Sec. 54. Yards of interior lots. Except upon a corner lot the 



240 HANDBOOK OX SANITATION 

depth of the yard behind every tenement- house hereafter erected 
sixty feet in height shall be not less than twelve feet in every 
part. Said yard shall be increased in depth one foot for every 
additional twelve feet of height of the building, or fraction thereof ; 
and may be decreased in depth one foot for every twelve feet of 
height of the building less than sixty feet; but it shall never be 
less than ten feet in depth in any part. 

Sec. 55. Yards of corner lots. The depth of the yard behind 
every tenement-house hereafter erected upon a corner lot shall 
be not less than ten feet in every part. 

Sec. 56. Yard spaces of lots running through from street to 
street. Wherever a tenement-house hereafter erected is upon a 
lot which runs through from one street to another street, and said 
lot is not less than seventy feet nor more than one hundred feet 
in depth, there shall be a yard space through the centre of the 
lot midway between the two streets, which space shall extend 
across the full width of the lot and shall never be less than twelve 
feet in depth from wall to wall; but where the ground floor of 
such building is used or intended to be used as a store, such yard 
space may start at the second tier of beams. Where such lot is 
over one hundred feet in depth, such yard space shall conform 
to the provisions of section sixty-two of this act for inner courts, 
and shall be left through the centre of the lot midway between 
the two streets. 

Sec. 57. Courts. No court of a tenement-house hereafter erected 
shall be covered by a roof or skylight, but every such court shall 
be at every point open from the ground to the sky unobstructed, 
and shall conform to the requirements of the following sections; 
provided, that an apartment not containing any room fronting 
upon the street or yard may have a fire-escape in a court, pro- 
jecting not more than three feet from the wall of the house. 

Sec. 58. Outer Courts. Where one side of an outer court is 
situated on the lot line, the width of the said court, measured 
from the lot line to the opposite wall of the building, for tene- 
ment-houses sixty feet in height, shall not be less than six feet 
in any part; and for every twelve feet of increase or fraction 
thereof in height of the said building, such width shall be in- 
creased six inches throughout the entire height of said court; and 
for every twelve feet of decrease in the height of the said build- 
ing below sixty feet, such width may be decreased six inches, but 



TENEMEXT-HOUSE LAW, 241 

no such court shall be less than four feet six inches wide in any 
part. 

Sec. 59. Where an outer court is situated between wings or 
parts of the same building, or between different buildings on the 
same lot, the width of the said court, measured from wall to wall. 
for tenement-houses sixty feet in height, shall not be less than 
twelve feet in any part; and for every twelve feet of increase or 
fraction thereof in the height of the said building, such width 
shall be increased one foot throughout the entire height of the 
said court; and for every twelve feet of decrease in the height of 
the said building below sixty feet, such width of the said court 
may be decreased one foot, but no such court shall ever be less 
than nine feet in width in any part. 

Sec. 60. Wherever an outer court changes its initial horizontal 
direction, or wherever any part of such court extends in a direc- 
tion so as not to receive? direct light from the street or yard, the 
length of such portion of said court shall never exceed the width 
of said portion; such length to be measured from the point at 
which the change of direction commences. Wherever an outer 
court is less in depth than the minimum width prescribed by this 
section, then its width may be equal to^ but not less than its 
depth, provided that such width is never less than four feet in 
the clear. This exception shall also apply to each offset or recess 
in outer courts. And no window except windows of water-closet 
compartments, bathrooms or halls shall open upon any offset or 
recess less than six feet in its least dimension. 

Sec. 61. Inner Courts. Where one side of an inner court is 
situated on the lot line, the width of the said court measured 
from the lot line to the opposite wall of the building, for tene- 
ment-houses sixty feet in height, shall not be less than twelve 
feet in any part, and its other horizontal dimensions shall not be 
less than twenty-four feet in any part; and for every twelve feet 
of increase or fraction thereof in the height of the said building, 
such width shall be increased six inches throughout the entire 
height of said court, and the other horizontal dimensions shall be 
increased one foot throughout the entire height of said court; and 
for every twelve feet of decrease in the height of the said build- 
ing below sixty feet, such width may be decreased six inches and 
the other horizontal dimension may be decreased one foot, but no 
such court shall be less than ten and a half feet in width in any 



242 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION 

• 
part, nor less than twenty-one feet in its other horizontal dimen- 
sion. 

Sec. 62. Where an inner court is not situated upon the lot line, 
but is enclosed on all four sides, the 'least horizontal dimension 
of the said court, for tenement-houses sixty feet in height, shall 
not be less than twenty-four feet; and for every twelve feet of 
increase or fraction thereof in the height of the said building, the 
said court shall be increased one foot in each horizontal dimen- 
sion, throughout the entire height of said court; and for every 
twelve feet of decrease in the height of the said building below 
sixty feet, the horizontal dimensions of the said court may be 
decreased one foot in each direction, but no such court shall ever 
be less than twenty-one feet in its last horizontal dimension. Off- 
sets or recesses in inner courts will be permitted, but where the 
depth of such offset or recess is less than the minimum width 
prescribed, then the width of said offset or recess may be equal 
to but not less than its depth, provided that such width is never 
less than four feet in the clear. And no window except win- 
dows of water- clpset compartments, bathrooms or halls shall 
open upon any offset or recess less than six feet in its least dimen- 
sion. -: 

Sec. 63. Every inner court shall be provided with one or more 
horizontal intakes or ducts at the bottom. Said intake or ducts 
shall be not less in total area than four per centum of the area of 
said inner court. Each such intake or duct shall be at least five 
square feet in area, and shall always communicate directly with 
the street or yard. Whenever the said intakes or ducts consist 
of a passageway or passageways, such passageway shall be left 
open, or if not open there shall always be provided in said pas- 
sageway or passageways open grilles or transoms of a size not 
less than five square feet each, and such open grilles or transoms 
shall never be covered over by glass or in any other way. There 
shall be at least two such grilles or transoms in each such passage- 
way, one at the inner court and the other at the street or yard, 
as the case may be. 

Sec. 64. Outer and inner courts. Nothing contained in the fore- 
going sections concerning outer and inner courts shall be con- 
strued as preventing windows at the angles of said courts, provided 
that the running length of the wall containing such windows does 
not exceed six feet. In construing said sections the height of the 



TENEMENT-HOUSE LAW. 243 

building is to be measured from the curb level to the top of the 
highest wall enclosing or forming such court. 

Sec. 65. Rear tenements. No separate tenement-house shall 
hereafter be erected upon the rear of a lot fifty feet or less in 
width where there is a tenement-house on the front of the said 
lot, nor upon the front of any such lot upon the rear of which 
there is such a tenement-house. 

Sec. QQ. Buildings on same lot with tenement-houses. If any 
building is hereafter placed on the same lot with a tenement- 
house, the space between the said buildings shall always be of such 
size and arranged in such manner as is prescribed in section sixty- 
two of this act for inner courts; and no building of any kind 
shall be hereafter placed upon the same lot with a tenement-house 
so as to decrease the minimum size of courts or yards as herein- 
before prescribed. And if any tenement-house is hereafter erected 
upon any lot upon which there is already another building, it 
shall comply with all of the provisions of this act, and in addi- 
tion the space between the said building and the said tenement- 
house shall be of such size and arranged in such manner as is 
prescribed in section sixty-two of this act for inner courts, the 
height of the highest building on the lot to regulate the dimen- 
sions. 

Sec. 67. Rooms, lighting and ventilation of. In every tenement- 
house hereafter erected every room, except water-closet compart- 
ments and bathrooms, shall have at least one window opening 
directly upon the street or upon a yard or court. 

Sec. 68. Windows in rooms. In every tenement-house hereafter 
erected the total window area in each room, except water-closet 
compartments and bathrooms, shall be at least one-tenth of the 
superficial area of the room, and the top at least of one window 
shall not be less than seven feet six inches above the floor, and 
the upper half of it shall be made so as to open the full width. 
Xo such window shall be less than twelve square feet in area 
between the stop beads. 

Sec. 69. Windows in water-closet compartments and bathrooms. 
In every tenement-house hereafter erected the total window area 
in a water-closet compartment or bathroom shall not be less than 
three square feet in area for each, and no such window shall be 
less than one foot in width, measured between stop beads. 

Sec. 70. Rooms, size of. In every tenement-house hereafter 



244 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

erected all rooms, except water-closet compartments and bath- 
rooms, shall be of the following minimum sizes: In each apart- 
ment there shall be at least one room containing not less than one 
hundred and twenty square feet of floor area, and each other room 
shall contain at least seventy square feet of floor area. Each room 
shall be in every part not less than nine feet high from the 
finished floor to the finished ceiling; provided that an attic room 
need be nine feet high in but one-half its area. 

Sec. 71. Alcoves. In every tenement-house hereafter erected 
where any room adjoins another room, and has eighty per centum 
or more of one entire side open to the other room, and there is 
no door between, it shall be considered as part of the said room. 
Under other circumstances every alcove shall be deemed a sepa- 
rate room for all purposes within the meaning of this act. 

Sec. 72. Public halls. In every tenement-house hereafter erected 
every public hall shall have at least one window opening directly 
upon the street or upon a yard or court. Either such window 
shall be at the end of said hall, with the plane of the window at 
right angles to the axis of said hall, or there shall be at least one 
window opening directly upon the street or upon a yard or court 
for every twenty feet in length or fraction thereof of said hall. 
In such halls recesses or returns the length of which does not ex- 
ceed twice the width of the hall will be permitted without an ad- 
ditional window; but wherever the length of such recess or re- 
turn exceeds twice the width of the hall, the above provision in 
reference to one window for every twenty feet of hallway shall 
be applied. Any part of a hall which is shut off from any other 
part of said hall by a door or doors shall be deemed a separate hall 
within the meaning of this section. 

Sec. 73. Windows for public halls, size of. In every tenement- 
house hereafter erected one at least of the windows provided to 
light each public hall or part thereof shall be at least two feet 
six inches wide and five feet high, measured between stop beads. 

Sec. 74. Windows for stair halls, size of. In every tenement- 
house hereafter erected the aggregate area of windows to light 
or ventilate stair halls shall be at least twenty-one square feet 
for each floor. There shall be provided for each story at least 
one of said windows, which shall be at least three feet wide and 
five feet high-, measured between the stop beads. 

Sec. 75. Privacy. In every apartment of three or more rooms 



TENEMENT-HOUSE LAW. 245 

in a tenement-house hereafter erected, access to every living room 
and bedroom, and to at least one water-closet compartment, shall 
be had without passing through any bedroom. 



Title II. 
Provisions Applicable Only to Now-existing Tenement-liouses. 

Sec. 76. Percentage of lot occupied. No now-existing tenement- 
house shall hereafter be enlarged, or its lot be diminished, so that 
the house occupy more than ninety per centum of a corner lot, 
or more than seventy per centum of any other lot, the measure- 
ments in all cases to be taken at the ground level; provided, that 
the space occupied by fire-escapes of the size hereinbefore pre- 
scribed shall not be deemed a part of the lot occupied. 

Sec. 77. Yards. No now-existing tenement-house shall hereafter 
be enlarged or its lot be diminished, so that the yard shall be 
less than five feet in depth when the building is on a corner lot, 
or less than twelve feet in depth in other cases, the measurements 
in all cases to be taken from the extreme- rear wall of the build- 
ing to the rear lot line and across the full width of the lot, and 
such yard shall be at every point open from the ground to the 
sky, except as provided in section fifty-three of this act. 

Sec. 78. Additional rooms and halls. Any additional room or 
hall that is hereafter constructed or created in a now-existing 
tenement-house shall comply in all respects with the provisions 
of the foregoing sections of this chapter as to the size, arrange- 
ment, light and ventilation of rooms and halls in tenement-houses 
hereafter erected. 

Sec. 79. Rooms, lighting and ventilation of, continued. No 
room in a now-existing tenement-house shall hereafter be occu- 
pied for living purposes unless it shall have a window upon the 
street, or upon a yard not less than five feet deep, or upon a court 
or shaft of not less than twenty-five square feet in area, open 
to the sky without roof or skylight, or unless such room has a 
sash window opening into an adjoining room in the same apart- 
ment which itself has a window opening on the street, or on a 
yard not less than five feet deep, said sash window having at least 
fifteen square feet of glazed surface, being at least three feet high 
and five feet wide between stop beads, and at least one-half thereof 



24:6 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

being made to open readily. Furthermore, no room in a now- 
existing tenement-house which does not have a window opening 
directly upon the street or upon a yard not less than five feet 
deep or upon a court or shaft of not less than twenty-five square 
feet in area open to the sky without roof or skylight shall here- 
after be occupied for living purposes unless such room contains 
at least sixty square feet of floor area, and also at least six hun- 
dred cubic feet of air space; and no such room shall be so occu- 
pied unless there is six hundred cubic feet of air to each individual 
occupying the same. No such room shall be occupied unless it be 
q every part not less than eight feet high from the finished floor 
to the finished ceiling; provided, that an attic room need be eight 
feet high in but half its area. 

Sec. 80. Public halls, lighting of. In every now-existing tene- 
ment-house four stories or over in height, whenever a public hall 
on any floor is not light enough in the daytime to permit a per- 
son to read in every part thereof without the aid of artificial light, 
the wooden panels in the doors located at the ends of the public 
halls and opening into rooms shall be removed, and ground glass 
or wire-glass panels of an aggregate of not less than four square 
feet for each door shall be substituted; or in lieu of removing the 
panels in the door a fixed window of wire-glass of an area of 
not less than five square feet may be cut into the partitions 
separating the said hall from a room which opens directly upon 
the street or upon a yard, court or shaft of the dimensions speci- 
fied in the last section; or said public hall may be lighted by a 
window or windows at the end thereof with the plane of the win- 
dow at right angles to the axis of the said hall, said window open- 
ing upon the street or upon a yard, court, or shaft of said dimen 
sions. 

Sec. 81. Light and vent shafts in existing buildings. Any sh. 
used or intended to be used to light or ventilate rooms used or in 
tended to be used for living purposes, and which may be here- 
after placed in a now-existing tenement-house, shall not be less 
in area than twenty-five square feet, not less than four feet in 
width in any part, and such shaft shall under no circumstances 
be roofed or covered over at the top with a roof or skylight; but 
if such shaft is provided at the bottom with a horizontal intake 
or duct, of a size not less than two square feet, and communicating 
directly with the street or yard, such shaft may be of a size not 



TENEMENT-HOUSE LAW. 247 

less than three feet by five feet, provided that not more than two 
rooms on any floor open thereon, and that if it be used to light 
or ventilate any living room no water-closet open upon it. 

Title III. 

Provisions Applicable to all Tenement-houses Hereafter Erected 
or Now Existing. 

Sec. 82. Public halls. In every tenement-house a proper light 
shall be kept burning by the owner in the public hallways, near 
the stairs, upon the entrance floor, and upon the second floor, above 
the entrance floor of said house, every night from sunset to sun- 
rise throughout the year, and upon all other floors of the said 
house from sunset until 10 o'clock in the evening. 

Sec. 83. Skylights. In every tenement-house there shall be in 
the roof directly over each stair-well, a ventilating skylight with 
both ridge ventilators and fixed louvres, the glazed surface thereof 
to be not less than twenty-five square feet in area. 

Sec. 84. Chimneys or fireplaces. In eveiy tenement-house there 
shall be adequate chimneys running through every floor with an 
open fireplace or grate, or place for a stove, properly connected 
with one of said chimneys for every apartment. 

Sec. 85. Vent shafts. Every vent shaft hereafter constructed 
in a tenement-house shall be at least twenty square feet in area, 
and the least dimension of such shaft shall not be less than four 
feet; and if the building be above sixty feet in height, such shaft 
shall throughout its entire height be increased in area three square 
feet for each additional twelve feet of height or fraction thereof: 
and for each twelve feet of height less than sixty feet such shaf 
may be decreased in area three square feet. A vent shaft ma; 
be enclosed on all four sides, but shall not be roofed or eovere 
over in any way. Every such shaft shall be provided with a 
horizontal intake or duct at the bottom, communicating with the 
street or yard, or with a court; such duct or intake to be not 
less than one and one-half square feet in total area. 



248 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION 

CHAPTER IV. 

SANITARY PROVISIONS. 

Title I. 

Provisions Applicable Only to Tenement-houses Hereafter Erected. 

Sec. 91. Basements and cellars. In tenement-houses hereafter 
erected no room in the cellar shall be constructed, altered, con- 
verted or occupied for living purposes. And no room in the base- 
ment shall be constructed, altered, converted or occupied for liv- 
ing purposes, unless all of the following conditions are complied 
with : 

1. Such room shall be at least nine feet high in every part from 
the floor to the ceiling. 

2. The ceiling of such room shall be at least four feet and six 
inches above the surface of the street or ground outside of or ad- 
joining the same. 

3. There shall be appurtenant to such room the use of a separate 
water-closet, constructed and arranged as required by section 
ninety-five of this act. 

4. Such room shall have a window or windows opening upon 
the street, or upon a yard or court. The total area of windows in 
such room shall be at least one-eighth of the superficial area of 
the room, and one-half of the sash shall be made to open the full 
width, and the top of each window shall be within six inches of 
the ceiling. 

5. All walls surrounding such room shall be made damp-proof 
in the manner specified in the next section. 

6. The floor of such room shall be made damp-proof and water- 
proof in the manner specified in the next section. 

Sec. 92. Basements and cellars, continued. Every tenement 
house hereafter erected shall have all walls below the ground 
level and all cellar or lower floors made damp-proof and water- 
proof. Such damp-proofing and water-proofing shall run through 
the walls and up the same as high as the ground level and shall a 
be continued throughout floor, and the said cellar or lowest floor 
shall be properly constructed so as to prevent dampness or water 
from entering. 

Sec. 93. Shafts, courts, areas and yards. In every tenement- 



TENEMENT-HOUSE LAW. 249 

house hereafter erected the bottom of all shafts, courts, areas and 
yards which extend to the basement for light or ventilation of 
living rooms, must be six inches below the floor level of the part 
occupied or intended to be occupied. All shafts, courts, areas 
and yards shall be properly concreted, graded and drained, and 
shall be properly connected with the street sewer so that all water 
may pass freely into it. 

Sec. 94. Water-supply. In every tenement-house hereafter 
erected there shall be in each apartment a proper sink with run- 
ning water. 

Sec. 95. Water-closet accommodations. In every tenement- 
house hereafter erected there shall be a separate water-closet in 
a separate compartment within each apartment, provided that 
where there are apartments consisting of but one or two rooms, 
there shall be at least one water-closet for every three rooms. 
All water-closets compartments must have a window opening upon 
the street or yard or upon a. court or vent shaft. Every water- 
closet compartment shall be provided with proper means of light- 
ing the same at night. If fixtures for gas or electricity are not 
provided in said compartment, then the door of said compartment 
shall be provided with ground glass or wire-glass panels, or with a 
ground glass or wire-glass transom, not less in area than four 
square feet. The floor of every water-closet compartment shall 
be made waterproof with asphalt, cement, tile, stone, metal or 
some other water-proof material; and such water-proofing shall 
extend at least six inches above the floor so that the said floor 
can be washed or flushed out without leaking. No drip trays 
shall be permitted. No water-closet fixtures shall be enclosed 
with any woodwork. 

Sec. 96. Plumbing. In every tenement- house hereafter erected 
all plumbing pipes shall wherever possible be exposed, or if such 
pipes are covered there shall be at each floor access to all rising 
lines through removable panels; said panels shall always be as 
wide as the whole stack of pipes and at least two feet and six 
inches in height. 

Title II. 

Provisions Applicable Only to Xow-existing Tenement-houses. 

Sec. 97. Basements and cellars. Hereafter in any now-existing 
tenement-house no room in the basement or cellar shall be occu- 



250 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION 

pied for living purposes without a written permit from the depart- 
ment of health, and such permit shall be kept readily accessible 
in said room. And no such room shall hereafter be occupied un- 
less all the following conditions are complied with: 

1. Such room shall be at least eight feet high in every part 
from the floor to the ceiling. 

2. The ceiling of such room shall be in every part at least two 
feet above the surface of the street or ground outside of or adjoin- 
ing the same. 

3. There shall be appurtenant to such room the use of a separate 
water-closet. 

4. There shall be outside of and adjoining such room, and ex- 
tending along the entire frontage thereof, an open space of at 
least two feet six inches wide in every part. The bottom of said 
space shall be at least six inches below the level of the floor of 
the room, and such space shall be well and effectually drained by 
a drain the bottom of which shall be at least one foot below the 
level of the floor of the room. 

5. Such room shall have a window or windows opening to the 
outer air of at least nine feet square in size clear of the sash 
frame and at least four and one-half square feet of which shall 
have been made to readily open for purposes of ventilation. 

6. If the house is situated over marshy ground, or ground on 
which water lies, or ground on which there is water pressure 
from below, the lowest floor shall have been made water-proof 
and damp-proof. 

Sec. 98. Water-closets. In all now-existing tenement-houses the 
woodwork enclosing all water-closets shall be removed from the 
front of said closet, and the space underneath the seat shall be left 
open. The floor or other surface beneath and around the close f 
shall be maintained in good order and repair, and shall be kept v el 
painted with white paint. 

Sec. 99. Public sinks. In all now-existing tenement-houses the 
woodwork enclosing sinks located in the public halls or stairs shal 
be removed and the space underneath said sinks shall be left open 
The floors and wall surfaces beneath and around the sink shall be 
maintained in good order and repair, and shall le kept well painted 
with white paint. 

Sec, 100. Privy vaults, school sinks c nd water- clo:ets. In all i o - 
existing- tenement-houses, all school sinks, privy vaults or other siin- 



TENEMENT-HOUSE LAW. 251 

ilar receptacles, used to receive fecal matter, urine or sewage, shall 
before January first, nineteen hundred and three, be completely 
removed and the place where they were located properly disin- 
fected under the direction of the department of 'health. Such appli- 
ances shall be replaced by individual water-closets of durable non- 
absorbent material, properly sewer connected, and with individual 
traps and properly connected flush tanks providing an ample flush 
of water to thoroughly cleanse the bowl. The seats of the water- 
closets shall be hinged and attached to the bowl of the closet. Each 
water-closet shall be located in a compartment completely separated 
from every other water-closet. The floors of the water-closet 
compartments shall be water-proof, as provided in section ninety- 
five of the act. Such water-closets may be located in the yard if 
necessary, and if so, long hopper closets may be used; all traps, 
flush tanks and pipes shall be protected against the action of frost. 
There shall be provided at least one water-closet for every two fam- 
ilies in every now-existing tenement-house. Except as in this sec- 
tion otherwise provided, such water-closets and all plumbing in con- 
nection therewith shall be in accordance with the ordinances and 
regulations in relation to plumbing and drainage. 

Title III. 

Provisions Applicable to All Tenement-houses, Whether Hereafter 
Erected or Now Existing. 

Sec. 101. Basements and cellars. The floor of the cellar or lowest 
floor of every tenement-house shall be water-tight, and the cellar 
ceilings shall be plastered. 

Sec. 102. Cellar walls and ceilings. The cellar walls and ceilings 
of every tenement-house shall be thoroughly whitewashed or 
painted a light color by the owner at least once a year; and no 
tenement-house hereafter erected, whether or not it has now been 
actually commenced, shall be occupied until this has been done for 
the first time. 

Sec. 103. Roofs. The roof of every tenement-house shall be kept 
in good repair and so as not to leak, and all rain water shall be 
so drained and conveyed therefrom as to prevent its dripping oh 
to the ground or causing dampness in the walls, ceilings, yards or 
areas. 



252 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION 

Sec. 104. Water-supply. Every tenement-house shall have water 
furnished in sufficient quantity at one or more places on each floor 
occupied by or intended to be occupied by one or more families. 
The owner shall provide proper and suitable tanks, pumps or o her 
appliances to receive and to distribute an adequate and sufficient 
supply of such w r ater at each floor in the said house, at all times 
of the year, during all hours of the day and night. But a failure 
in the general supply of water by the city authorities shall not b3 
construed to be a failure on the part of such owner, provided that 
proper and suitable appliances to receive and distribute such water 
have been provided in said house. 

Sec. 105. Cleanliness of buildings. Every tenement-house and 
every part thereof shall be kept clean and free from any accumu- 
lation' of dirt, filth or garbage, or other matter in or on the same, or 
in the yards, courts, passages, areas or alleys connected with or 
belonging to the same. The owner of every tenement-house or 
part thereof shall thoroughly cleanse all the rooms, passages, stairs, 
floors, windows, doors, walls, ceilings, privies, water-closets, cess- 
pools, drains, halls, cellars, roofs and all other parts of the said 
tenement-house, or part of the house of which he is the owner, to 
the satisfaction of the department of health, and shall keep the said 
parts of the said tenement-house in a cleanly condition at all tiires 
No person shall place filth, urine or fecal matter in any place in 
a tenement-house other than that provided for the same, or keep 
filth, urine or fecal matter in his apartment or upon his premises 
such length of time as to create a nuisance. 

Sec. 106. Shafts and courts. In every tenement-house there shall 
be, at the bottom of every shaft and inner court, a self-closing fire- 
proof door giving sufficient success to such shaft or court to enable 
it to be properly cleaned out. 

Sec. 107. Walls of courts and shafts. The walls of all yard 
courts, inner courts and shafts, unless built of a light color brick 
or stone, shall be thoroughly whitewashed by thei owner «at least 
once in three years, or shall be painted a light color by him at 
least once in five years; and no tenement-house hereafter erected, 
whether or not it lias now been actually commenced, shall be occu- 
pied until this has been done for the first time. 

Sec. 108. Wall paper. No wall paper shall be placed upon a ^ all 
or ceiling of any tenement-house unless all wall paper shall be first 
removed therefrom, and said w r all and ceiling thoroughly cleaned. 



TENEMENT-HOUSE LAW. 253 

Sec. 109. Receptacles for ashes, garbage and refuse. The owner 
of every tenement-house shall provide for said building proper and 
suitable conveniences or receptacles for ashes, rubbish, garbage, ref- 
use and other matter. 

Sec. 110. Prohibited uses, No horse, cow, calf, swine, sheep or 
goat shall be kept in a tenement-house, or on the premises thereof, 
and no tenement-house shall be used for a lodging-house or stable, 
or for the storage or handling of rags. 

Sec. 111. Janitor or housekeeper. Whenever there shall be mora 
than eight families living in any tenement-house, in which the 
owner thereof does not reside, there shall be a janitor, housekeeper 
or some other responsible person who shall reside in said house anl 
have charge of the same, if the department of health shall so re- 
quire. 

Sec. 112. Overcrowding. Xo room in any tenement-house shall 
be so overcrowded that there shall be afforded less than four hun- 
dred cubic feet of air to each adult, and two hundred cubic feet 
of air to each child under twelve years of age occupying such room, 
and no apartment in any tenement-house shall be so overcrowded 
that there shall be afforded in the living rooms and bedrooms of 
said apartment less than six hundred cubic feet of air to each indi- 
vidual occupying such apartment. 

Sec. 113. Space around pipes. In all tenement-houses, where 
plumbing or other pipes pass through floors or partitions, the open- 
ings around such pipes shall be sealed or made air-tight with plas- 
ter, or other incombustible materials, so as to prevent the passage 
of air or the spread of fire from one floor to another, or from 
room to room. 

CHAPTER V. 

REMEDIES. 

Title I. 
General Poicers and Ditties. 
Sec. 121. Permit to commence building. Before the construction 
or alteration of a tenement-house, or the alteration or conversion 
of a building for use as a tenement-house, is commenced, the owner, 
or his agent or architect, shall submit to the department charged 
with the enforcement of this act a detailed statement in writing, 
verified by the person making the same, of the specifications for the 



254 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

construction and for the light and ventilation of such tenement- 
house or building, upon a blank or form to be furnished by such 
department, and also a full and complete copy of the plans of such 
work. Such statement shall give in full the name and residence, 
by street and number, of the owner or owners of such tenement- 
house or building. If such construction, alteration, or conversion, 
is proposed to be made by any other person than the owner of the 
land in fee, such statement shall contain the full name and resi- 
dence, by street and number, not only of the owner of the land, 
but of every person interested in such tenement-house, either as 
owner, lessee or in any representative capacity. The statements 
herein provided for may be made by the owner, or the person who 
proposes to make the construction, alteration or conversion, or by 
his agent or architect. No person, however, shall be recognized as 
the agent of the owner, unless he shall file with the said department 
a written instrument, signed by such owner, designating him as 
such agent. Such specifications, plans and statements shall be filed 
in the said department and shall be deemed public records, but no 
such specifications, plans or statements shall be removed from 
said department. The said department shall cause all such plans 
and specifications to be examined. If such plans and specifications 
conform to the provisions of this act and to the building ordinances 
and regulations, they shall be approved by such department, and 
a written certificate to that effect shall be issued to the person 
submitting the same. The department may, from time to time, ap- 
prove changes in any plans and specifications previously approved 
by it; provided the plans and specifications, when so changed, shall 
be in conformity with law. The construction, alteration or conver 
sion of such tenement-house or building, or any part thereof, snail 
not be commenced until the filing of such specifications, plans and 
statements, and the approval thereof, as above provided. 

Sec. 122. Certificate of compliance. No building hereafter con- 
structed as or altered into a, tenement-house shall be occupied 
in whole or in part for human habitation until the issuance of 
a. certificate by the department aforesaid that said building con- 
forms in all respects to the requirements of this act. Such c r- 
tificate shall be issued within ten days after written applica ion 
therefor, if said building at the date of such applications shall be 
entitled thereto. 

Sec. 123. Unlawful occupation. If any building hereafter con- 



TENEMENT-HOUSE LAW, 255 

structed as or altered into a tenement-house be occupied in whole or 
in part for human habitation in violation of the list section, during 
such unlawful occupation any bond or note secured by a mortgage 
upon said building, or the lot upon which it stands, may be de- 
dared due at the option of the mortgagee. No rent shall be recov- 
erable by the owner or lessee of such premises for said period, and 
no action or special proceeding shall be maintained therefor, or for 
possession of said premises for non-payment of such rent. The de- 
partment of water-supply shall not permit water to be furnished in 
any such tenement-house, and said premises shall be deemed unfit 
for human habitation, and the department of health shall cause 
them to be vacated accordingly. 

Sec. 124. Enforcement. Except as herein otherwise provided, ;he 
provisions of this act shall be enforced by the department of any 
city to which this act applies, which is now charged with the en- 
forcement of laws, ordinances and regulations relating to similar 
subject matter in tenement-houses. 

Sec. 126. Penalties for violations. Every person who shall vio- 
late or assist in the violation of any provision of this act, shall 
be guilty of a misdemeanor punishable by imprisonment for ten 
days for each and every day that such violation shall, continue, 
or by a fine of not less than ten dollars nor more than one hundred 
dollars if the offence be not wilful, or of two hundred and fifty 
dollars if the offence be wilful, and in every case of ten dollars 
for each day after the first that such violation shall continue, or 
by both such fine and imprisonment in the discretion of the court; 
provided that the punishment for a violation of section one hun- 
dred and thirty-one of this act shall be a fine of fifty dollars; and 
provided further that the penalty for encumbrance of a fire-esca e 
by an occupant of the tenement-house shall be a fine of ten dollars, 
which the nearest police magistrate shall have jurisdiction to im- 
pose. 

See. 127. Violation of building laws, ordinances and regulations. 
Any owner, agent, architect, builder, contractor, sub-contractor or 
foreman who shall, in the construction or alteration of any build- 
ing intended to be used as a tenement-house, knowingly violate 
any of the provisions of the building laws, ordinances or regula- 
tions, shall be guilty of a misdemeanor. 

Sec. 128. Procedure. Except as herein otherwise specified, the 
procedure for the prevention of violations of this act, or for the 



256 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION 

vacation of premises unlawfully occupied, or f,r oiler abatement 
of nuisance in connection with a tenement- hoiue, shall be as set 
forth in charter and ordinances. 

Sec. 129. Liens. Every fine imposed by judgment under section 
one hundred and twenty-six of this act upon a tenement-house 
owner shall be a lien upon the house in relation to which the fine 
is imposed from the time of the filing of a certified copy of said 
judgment in the office of the clerk of the county in which ^aid tene- 
ment-house is situated, subject only to taxes, assessments and water- 
rates, and to such mortgage and mechanics' liens as may exist 
thereon prior to such filing; and it shall be the duty of the depart- 
ment of health, upon the entry of said judgment, to forthwith file 
the copy as aforesaid, and such copy, upon such filing, shall be 
forthwith indexed by the clerk in the index of mechanics' liens. 

Title II. 

Registry of Names and Service of Papers. 

Sec. 131. Registry of owners' names. Every owner of a tene- 
ment-house and every lessee! of the whole house, or other persons 
having control of a tenement-house, shall file in the department 
of health a notice containing his name and address, and also a 
description of the property, by street number or otherwise, as the 
case may be, in such manner as will enable the department of 
health easily to find the same; and also the number of apart- 
ments in each house, the number of rooms in each apartment, the 
number of families occupying the apartments, and the trades or 
occupations carried on therein. In case of a transfer of any tene- 
ment-house, it shall be the duty of the grantor or grantee of 
said tenement-house to file in the department of health a notice 
of such transfer, stating the name of the new owner, within thirty 
days after such transfer. In case of the devolution of said prop- 
erty by will, it shall be the duty of the executor and the devisee, 
if more than twenty-one years of age, and in case of the devolu- 
tion of such property by inheritance without a will, it shall be 
the duty of the guardians of such heirs, and in case said heirs 
have no guardians, it shall be the duty of the administrator of 
the deceased owner of said property to file in said department a 
notice, stating the death of the deceased owner, and the name of 
those who have succeeded to his interest in said property, within 



TENEMENT-HOUSE LAW. 257 

thirty days after the death of the decedent, in case he died in- 
testate, and within thirty days after the probate of his will, if he 
died testate. i 

Sec. 132. Registry of agent's name. Every owner, agent, or 
lessee of a tenement-house may file in the department of health 
a notice containing the name and address of an agent of such 
house, for the purpose of receiving service of process, and also 
a description of the property by street number or otherwise, as 
the case may be, in such manner as will enable the department 
of health easily to find the same. The name of the owner or 
lessee may be filed as agent for this purpose. 

Sec. 133. Service of notices and orders. Every notice or order 
in relation to a tenement-house shall be served five days before 
the time for doing the thing in relation to which it shall have 
been issued. The posting of a copy of such notice or order in a 
conspicuous place in the tenement-house, together with the mail- 
ing of a copy thereof, on the same day that it is posted, to each 
person, if any, whose name has been filed with the department of 
health in accordance with the provisions of sections one hundred 
and thirty-one and one hundred and thirty-two of this act, at 
his address as therewith filed, shall be sufficient service thereof. 

Sec. 134. Service of summons. In any action brought by any 
city department in relation to a tenement-house for injunction, 
vacation of the premises, or other abatement of nuisance, or to 
establish a lien thereof it shall be sufficient service of the sum- 
mons to serve the same as notices and orders are served under 
the provisions of the last section; provided, that if the address 
of any agent whose name and address have been filed in accord- 
ance with the provisions of section one hundred and thirty-two 
of this act is in the city in which the tenement-house is situated, 
then a copy of the summons shall also be delivered at such ad- 
dress to a person of proper age, if upon reasonable application 
admittance can be obtained and such person found; and provided 
also, that personal service of the summons upon the owner of 
such tenement-house shall be sufficient service thereof upon him. 

Sec. 135. Indexing names. The names and addresses filed in 
accordance with sections one hundred and thirty- one and one 
hundred and thirty-two shall be indexed under direction of the 
registrar of records of the , department of health, in such a man- 
ner that all of those filed in relation to each tenement-house shall 



258 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

be together, and readily ascertainable. The board of health shall 
provide the registrar with the necessary books and clerical as- 
sistance for that purpose, and the expense thereof shall be paid 
by the city. Said indexes shall be public records, open to public 
inspection during business hours. 

Title III. 
Prostitution in Tenement-houses. 

Sec. 141. Vagrancy. A woman who knowingly resides in or 
commits prostitution in a house of prostitution or assignation of 
any description in a tenement-house, or solicits any man or boy 
to enter therein for purposes of prostitution, shall be deemed a 
vagrant, and upon conviction thereof shall be committed to a 
county jail for a term not exceeding six months from the date 
of commitment. The procedure in such case shall be made the 
same as that provided by law for other cases of vagrancy. 

Sec. 142. Lien. A tenement-house shall be subject to a penalty 
of one thousand dollars, if it or any part of it shall be used for 
the purpose of a house of prostitution or assignation of any de- 
scription, with the permission of the owner thereof, or his agent, 
and said penalty shall be a lien upon the house and the lot upon 
which the house is situated. 

See. 143. Permission of lessee. If a tenement-house, or any part 
thereof, shall be used for the purpose of a house of prostitution 
or assignation of any description with the permission of the lessee 
of the whole of said tenement-house, or his agent, the lease shall 
be terminable at the election of the lessor. And the owner shall 
be entitled to recover possession of said tenement-house by sum- 
mary proceedings in the manner provided by title two of chapter 
seventeen of the code of civil procedure. 

Sec. 144. Permission of owner. A tenement-house shall be 
deemed to have been used for the purpose specified in the last two 
sections with the permission of the owner and lessee thereof, if 
summary proceedings for the removal of the tenants of said tene- 
ment-house or of so much thereof as is unlawfully used, shall not 
have been commenced within five days after notice of such un- 
lawful use, served by the department of health in the manner pre- 
scribed by law for the service qf notices and orders in relation to 
tenement-houses. 



II. 

TENEMENT-HOUSE DEPARTMENT. 

(Extract from New York City Charter.) 

1. Organization of department; officers and employees. 

2. Powers and duties of department. 

3. Records and reports; miscellaneous provisions. 

Organization of Department; Bureaus; Officers and Employees. 

Sec. 1326. Department created; tenement-house commissioner. 
The head of the tenement-house department shall be called the 
tenement-house commissioner. He shall be appointed by the 
mayor, and shall hold office as provided in chapter four of this 
act. His salary shall be seven thousand five hundred dollars a 
year. 

Sec. 1327. Deputy commissioner. The commissioner shall have 
power to appoint and, in his discretion, to remove not more than 
two deputies, to be known as first deputy, and second deputy, 
and shall define their duties. The first deputy shall during the 
absence or disability of the commissioner possess all the powers 
and perform all the duties of the commissioner except the power 
of making appointments. In the absence or disability of both 
the commissioner and the first deputy, the second deputy shall 
possess all the powers and perforin all the duties of the commis- 
sioner, except the power of making appointments. 

The salaries of such deputies shall be four thousand dollars a 
year each. 

Sec. 1328. Bureaus; divisions of department for Brooklyn, 
Queens and Richmond. There shall be in the tenement-house de- 
partment, (1) a new building bureau; (2) an inspection bureau; 
(3) a bureau of records; and such other bureaus as the commis- 
sioner may deem necessary. 

A separate division of the department may be established in the 
borough of Brooklyn, with jurisdiction over tenement-houses in 
the borough of Brooklyn, and also in the discretion of the commis- 
sioner over tenement-houses in the boroughs of Queens or Rich 
mond, or both. The commissioner may designate the deputy com- 

259 



260 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION 

missioner or some other officer of the department as the executive 
head of such division, who shall perform such duties and possess 
such powers as may be delegated to him by the commissioner. A 
branch of each of the bureaus above specified may be established 
in such division. 

Sec. 1329. Officers and employees. The tenement-house com- 
missioner, within the limits of his appropriation, shall have power 
to appoint and remove, subject to the requirements of the civil- 
service laws, such subordinate officers, assistants and employees 
as may be necessary for the efficient performance of his duties as 
said commissioner. 

In the new building bureau there shall be no less than three 
plan examiners and not less than sixteen inspectors of light and 
ventilation. In the inspection bureau there shall be not less than 
one hundred and ninety inspectors, including such persons as may 
be detailed by the police commissioner for service in the tenement- 
house department. The commissioner shall appoint a chief in- 
spector and deputy chief inspector over such bureau. In the other 
bureaus there shall be such registrars, clerks and employees as are 
necessary to perform the duties thereof. 

All such officers and employees shall be subject to the super- 
vision and control of the commissioner, and shall perform such 
duties as are assigned by "him. Such commissioner may make 
regulations governing each such bureau, and branch thereof, not 
inconsistent with law. 

Sec. 1330. Duties of bureaus. The new building bureau shall 
file, record and examine plans and specifications for the light and 
ventilation of tenement-houses hereafter altered or erected, and 
of buildings to be altered or reconstructed for use as tenement- 
houses. It shall inspect all such houses and buildings in the 
course of construction or alteration, and record all violations of 
the tenement-house act in respect thereto. 

The inspection bureau shall inspect all completed tenement- 
houses, and record all violations of the tenement-house laws and 
ordinances. The commissioner shall prescribe the duties of the 
inspectors connected with such bureau, and may assign them to 
such part of the city as he may deem best. 

The bureau of records shall contain records of every tenement- 
house in the city, to be kept in the manner and form prescribed 
by the commissioner. 



TENEMENT-HOUSE DEPARTMENT 261 

Such other bureaus as may be organized by the commissioner 
shall perform the duties prescribed by him, and he may assign 
thereto such employees as may be necessary. 

Sec. 1331. Offices and expenses. The commissioner may provide 
offices for the use of the department, its bureaus and the branches 
thereof. Such commissioner may, subject to the other provisions 
of this act, make such incidental and additional expenditures, 
having due regard to economy, as the purposes and provisions of 
this chapter may require. He may provide that the failure of an 
inspector, officer or employee of the department to properly per- 
form his duty shall cause a forfeiture of the whole or any part 
of the salary or compensation of such inspector, officer or em- 
ployee. 

Sec. 1332. Seal. The commissioner may design and adopt a seal 
for the department, and cause the same to be used in the authenti- 
cation of the orders and proceedings of the department, and for 
such other purposes as he may prescribe. The courts shall take 
judicial notice of such seal, and of the signature of the commis- 
sioner and deputy commissioner of such department. 

Sec. 1333. Annual report. The commissioner shall make an an- 
nual report at some time prior to the first day of March of each 
year to the mayor of The City of New York of all the operations 
of his department for the year ending on the preceding thirty-first 
day of December. Such report shall, if ordered by the mayor, 
be published in the City Record, and shall also be published in 
book form for public information. The mayor may, at any time, 
call for a fuller report, or for a report upon any portion of the 
work of said department, whenever he deems it for the public 
good so to do. 

Sec. 1334. Publication of statistics and other data. The com- 
missioner may provide for the publicity of the papers, files, re- 
ports, records and the proceedings of his department, whenever 
he deems it necessary for the public good and public service. 
There shall be kept in such department statistics of all tenement- 
houses, which shall be contained in the annual report of such 
department. 

Sec. 1335. Uniforms and badges. The commissioner may pro- 
vide or designate a suitable uniform to be worn by inspectors. 
He may also provide a badge of metal, with a suitable inscription 



262 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION 

thereon, and require it to be worn by the inspectors and officers 
of the department. 

Sec. 1336. Reports of inspectors. Each of such inspectors shall 
report in writing, at least once in each week, to the commissioner. 
The form, manner and scope of such reports shall be prescribed by 
the commissioner. Such reports shall be filed in the department. 

Sec. 1337. Proofs, affidavits and oaths. Proofs, affidavits and 
examinations as to any matter arising in connection with the 
performance of any of the duties of the tenement-house depart- 
ment may be taken by or before the tenement-house commissioner, 
or his deputy, or such other person as he may designate; and 
such commissioner, deputy or other person may administer oath* 
in connection therewith. 

Sec. 1338. Complaint book. The commissioner shall cause to be 
kept in his department a general complaint book, or several such 
books, in which may be entered by any person any complaint in 
reference to tenement-houses, with the name and residence of the 
complainant, the name of the person complained of, the date of 
the entry of the complaint and suggestions of any proper remedy. 
Such book shall be_ open to public examination during the office 
hours of the department, subject to such regulations as the com- 
missioner may prescribe. The tenement-house^commissioner shall 
cause the facts in regard to all complaints to be investigated. 

Sec. 1339. Attorneys. The corporation counsel shall assign to 
such department such assistant counsel as may be needful, in the 
manner provided by chapter seven of this act. 

Powers and Duties of Department. 

Sec. 1340. General powers and duties. All the rights and pow- 
ers possessed by the health department of The City of New York 
with respect to the sanitary inspection of tenement-houses are 
hereby conferred upon the tenement-house department; and the 
tenement-house department is hereby charged with the duty of* 
enforcing all the provisions of the tenement-house act, except that 
sections eleven to twenty-eight, inclusive, and sections thirty- 
three, thirty-four, thirty-seven, thirty-eight and thirty-nine of 
said act shall be enforced by the bureaus of buildings of their 
respective boroughs. The names of owners, lessees and agents, and 
persons having control of tenement-houses, shall be filed in, and 



TENEMENT-HO USE DEPARTMENT. 2 6 3 

the taxpayers' request for the institution of an action for a lien 
upon a tenement-house shall be presented to, the tenement-house 
department instead of to the department of health. Nothing 
herein contained shall abrogate or impair the existing powers of 
the department of health of The City of New York. The tene- 
ment-house department shall have the powers and shall perform 
the duties specified in this chapter. 

Sec. 1341. Transfer of powers of other departments. Such 
rights, powers and duties as are now possessed by the fire depart- 
ment and police department of The City of New York with re- 
spect to the prevention of encumbrance or obstruction of fire- 
escapes on tenement-houses are hereby transferred to and con- 
ferred upon the tenement-house department. All rights, powers 
and duties now possessed by the department of buildings and the 
department of health of The City of Xew York with respect to 
the light and ventilation of tenement-houses, and with respect to 
the equipment of completed tenement-houses with fire-escapes, are 
transferred to and conferred upon the tenement-house department. 

Sec. 1342. Approval of plans and specifications for light and 
ventilation. Before the construction or alteration of a tenement- 
house, or the alteration or conversion of a building for use as a 
tenement-house, is commenced, the owner, or his agent or architect, 
shall submit to the tenement-house department a detailed state- 
ment in writing, verified by the person making the same, of 'the 
specifications for the light and ventilation of such tenement-house 
or building, upon a blank or form to be furnished by such depart- 
ment, and also a full and complete copy of the plans of such 
work. Such statement shall give in full the name and residence, 
by street and number, of the owner or owners of such tenement- 
house or building. If such construction, alteration, or conversion, 
is proposed to be made by any other person than the owner of 
the land in fee, such statement shall contain the full name and 
residence, by street and number, not only of the owner of the 
land, but of every person interested in such tenement-house, either 
as owner, lessee or in, any representative capacity. The state- 
ments herein provided for may be made by the owner, or the 
person who proposes to make the construction, alteration or con- 
version, or by his agent or architect. Xo person, however, shall 
be recognized as the agent of the owner, unless he shall file with 
the tenement-house department a written instrument, signed by 



264 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION 

such owner, designating him as such agent. Such specifications, 
plans and statements shall be filed in the office of the tenement- 
house department and shall be deemed public records, but no such 
specifications, plans or statements shall be removed from said de- 
partment. 

The commissioner shall cause all such plans and specifications 
to be examined. If such plans and specifications conform to the 
provisions of the tenement-house act, they shall be approved by 
such commissioner, and a written certificate to that effect shall be 
issued to the person submitting the same. The commissioner may, 
from time to time, approve changes in any plans and specifica- 
tions previously approved by him, provided the plans and specifi- 
cations when so changed shall be in conformity with law. 

The construction, alteration or conversion of such tenement- 
house or building, or any part thereof, shall not be commenced 
until the filing of such specifications, plans and statements, and the 
approval thereof by the tenement-house commissioner, as above 
provided. 

No permit shall be granted and no plan approved by the bureau 
of buildings of any borough of The City of New York for the con- 
struction or alteration of a tenement-house, or- for the alteration 
or conversion of any building for use as a tenement-house, until 
there has been filed in such bureau of buildings a certificate of 
the tenement-house commissioner, issued as above provided. 

Sec. 1343. Inspection of tenement-houses in course of construc- 
tion. The commissioner shall cause an inspection and examination 
to be made of all tenement-houses in the course of construction or 
alteration, and also of all buildings in course of alteration or 
conversion for use as tenement-houses, for the purpose of ascer- 
taining whether such tenement-houses or buildings are being con- 
structed, altered and converted in conformity with the law, and 
the plans and specifications on file in the office of the department, 
and approved by the commissioner. 

Sec. 1344. Certificate of owner of tenement-house hereafter 
erected or altered. No building hereafter constructed as or altered 
into a tenement-house shall be occupied in whole or in part for 
human habitation, until the issuance of a certificate by the tene- 
ment-house commissioner that said building conforms in all re- 
- spects to the provisions of the tenement-house act not excepted in 
section thirteen hundred and forty of this act ; and of a certificate 



TENEMENT HOUSE DEPARTMENT. 205 

by the superintendent of buildings of the hcrough in which the 
building is situated that the building conforms in all respects to 
the requirements of said excepted sections. Such certificates shall 
be issued within ten days after written application therefor, if said 
building at the date of such application shall be entitled thereto. 
If any building hereafter constructed as or altered into a tenement- 
house be occupied in whole or in part for human habitation with- 
out such certificates, during such unlawful occupation any bond 
or note secured by a mortgage upon said building, or the lot upon 
which it stands, may be declared due at the option of the mort- 
gagee. Xo rent shall be recoverable by the owner or lessee of 
such premises for said period, and no action or special proceeding 
shall be maintained therefor, or for possession of said premises for 
non-payment of such rent. The department of water-supply shall 
not permit water to be furnished in any such tenement-house, and 
said premises shall be deemed unfit for human habitation, and the 
tenement-house commissioner shall cause them to be vacated ac- 
cordingly. 

Sec. 1344a. Inspection of completed tenement-houses. Except 
as hereinafter otherwise provided, the tenement-house commissioner 
shall cause an inspection of every completed tenen.ent-house in 
the city to be made at least once in each month. Such inspection 
shall include examination of cellars, halls, water-closets, privies, 
plumbing, yards, areas, fire-escapes, roofs, shafts, courts, tanks and 
all other parts of such tenement-houses and the premises connected 
therewith. In tenement-houses where the average rental of the 
apartments therein is twenty-five dollars a month or more, such in 
spection may be made less often than once a month, as above pro- 
vided, in the discretion of the tenement-house commissioner. The 
tenement-house commissioner shall prescribe the manner in which 
such inspections shall be made. 

The inspectors shall immediately report to the tenement-house 
department all violations of the tenement-house act, and the ten- 
ement-house commissioner shall issue such orders as he may deem 
necessary requiring the removal of the defect or the cessation of 
the act which is in violation of such law. 

Sec. 1344b. Injunctions, when to be granted against the depart- 
ment. Xo preliminary injunction shall be granted against the ten- 
ement-house department or its officers except by the supreme court, 
at a special term thereof, after service of at least five days' notice 



2C6 HANDBOOK OJSf SANITATION. 

of the motion for such injunction, together with copies of the pa- 
pers upon which the motion for such injunction is to be made. 
Whenever such department shall seek any provisional remedy or 
shall prosecute an appeal, it shall not be necessary, before obtain- 
ing or prosecuting the same, to give an undertaking. 

Sec. 1344c. Power of attorney for the department. The couns 1 
assiigned by the corporation counsel to the tenement-house dep t 
ment shall sue for and collect all penalties, and take charge of an 
conduct all legal proceedings imposed or provided by this chapter, 
or by the tenement-house act, and all other tenement-house laws, 
regulations and ordinances. All suits or proceedings instituted for 
the enforcement of the several provisions of this chapter, or for 
the recovery of penalties imposed by the tenement-house act, shall 
be brought in the name of the tenement-house department of The 
City of New \ ork, by such counsel. The penalties recovered shall 
be paid to such counsel. He shall, on the first of each month, 
render to the commissioner an itemized statement of all moneys 
collected by him, and pay over the same to the tenement-house 
commissioner. He shall at the same time render a statement of 
the necessary disbursements incurred or paid in the prosecution 
or the actions and proceedings instituted by him. The tenement- 
house commissioner shall pay monthly the amount of such moneys 
so collected to the comptroller of The City of New York. 

Sec. 1344d. No personal liability. An officer or employee of the 
tenement-house department shall not be liable for acts done by 
him in good faith, in the performance of his official duties, pursu- 
ant to the direction of the commissioner or the rules and regula- 
tions of "the department. Any person whose property has been 
unjustly or illegally destroyed or injured pursuant to the order, 
regulation or ordinance of such tenement-house department, or its 
officers or employees, for which no personal liability exists as afore- 
said, may maintain a proper action against the city for the recov- 
ery of the proper compensation or damage. Every such suit shall 
be brought within six months after the cause of action arose, and 
the recovery shall be limited to the damages suffered. 

Sec. 1344e. Right of entry of officers of department. The tene- 
ment-house commissioner and his deputies and all inspectors of 
the tenement-house department, and such other persons as are au- 
thorized by the commissioner, may without fee or hindrance enter, 
examine and survey all premises, grounds, erections, structures^ 



TENEMENT-HOUSE DEPARTMENT. 267 

apartments, buildings and every part thereof in the city, and all 
cellars and passages of every sort, and inspect the safety and sani- 
tary condition, and make plans, drawings and descriptions thereof, 
according to the regulations of the department. The owner or his 
agent or representative, and the lessee or occupant of every tene- 
ment-house or part thereof, and every person having the care and 
management thereof, shall at all times, when required by any of 
such officers or persons, give them free access to such house and 
every part thereof. 

Sec. 1344f. Punishment for false returns and deceptive reports. 
Any inspector, officer or employee of such tenement-house depart- 
ment who shall knowingly make thereto a false or deceptive report 
or statement in connection with his duties, or shall accept or re- 
ceive any bribe or other compensation as a condition of or an in- 
ducement for not faithfully discovering or fully reporting or 
otherwise acting in accordance with his duty in any respect, or 
shall accept or receive any gratuity from any person whose interests 
may be affected by his official action, shall be guilty of a misde- 
meanor and punishable by imprisonment for not more than one 
year and by a fine of not more than five hundred dollars. If such 
officer, inspector or employee be convicted of such offence, he shall 
forfeit his office, and in addition all compensation due or to be- 
come due from such department. 

Sec. 1344g. Falsely personating an officer. If any person, not 
an officer, inspector or employee of such department, or acting 
under the authority thereof, falsely represents himself as such, or 
if any such person shall use, wear or display, without authority, 
any shield ox other insignia or emblem such as is worn by such an 
officer, inspector or employee, he shall be guilty of a misdemeanor. 

Sec. 1344h. Application of provisions of chapter nineteen. The 
provisions of chapter nineteen of this charter, relative to the de- 
partment of health, which provide: 

1. For the repair of buildings. 

2. For proceedings relative to dangerous and improperly con- 
structed buildings. 

3. For assistance and co-operation of the police department. 

4. Punishment for violations of orders and the service of such 
orders. 

5. For legal proceedings and punishment for disobedience of or- 
ders and ordinances. 



268 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION 

6. For reimbursements and lien of expenses incurred by such de- 
partment, in the execution of its orders as contained in title five 
thereof. 

7. For suits for the abatement or removal of nuisances, and 
for proceedings, and the powers and duties of such department 
in respect to such nuisances, and the definition of the word 
"nuisance" and other matters in respect thereto, shall apply to 
the supervision and regulation of tenement-houses by the tene- 
ment-house department, its officers, agents and employees, unless 
otherwise specified in, or inconsistent with, the provisions of this 
chapter. 

Records and Reports ; Miscellaneous Provisions. 

Sec. 1344L Records in department. The tenement-house com- 
missioner shall provide a system for keeping the records of tene- 
ment-houses by card catalogue and street number, or otherwise. 
Such records shall include : 

1. A diagram of each tenement-house, showing the shape of the 
building, its width and depth, also the measurements of the un- 
occupied area, showing shafts, courts, yards and other open spaces. 
Such diagram shall include a diagram of the second or typical floor 
of the building, showing the sizes and arrangement of the rooms, 
and all doors, stairs, windows, halls and partitions. 

2. A statement of the date or the approximate date when the 
building was erected. 

3. The deaths occurring in the tenement-house during each year 
and the annual death-rate therein. Such statement shall show 
whether such deaths were of adults or children, and, if occasioned 
by tuberculosis, typhoid fever, diptheria, scarlet fever, smallpox, 
measles, or by any other contagious or infectious disease, it shall 
state the disease causing death. 

4. The cases of sickness occurring in the tenement-house and the 
nature of the disease. Such record shall also show whether such 
cases of sickness were of children or adults. 

5. The arrest of persons residing in the tenement-house. 

Sec. 1344j. Reports from different institutions and departments. 
All dispensaries and hospitals in The City of New York shall make 
weekly statements to the tenement-house department as to the 
cases of sickness received in such hospital or treated in such dis- 
pensary from each tenement-house. Such statement shall show 



TENEMENT-HOUSE DEPARTMENT. 269 

the location of the tenement -house, by street and number, from 
which the case was received, and the nature of the sickness treated, 
whether the patient was an adult or child and the date of the 
treatment. 

The police department of The City of New York shall furnish to 
the tenement-house department a weekly statement of the number 
of arrests of persons living in tenement-houses, which shall show 
the location of the tenement-house, by street and number, the of- 
fence with, which the person is charged, the age and name of the 
offender, and such other information as the tenement-house de- 
partment may require. The tenement-house commissioner shall 
prescribe and furnish blank forms for making such statements. 

See. 1344k. Other reports to the department. Such department 
may require reports and information of such facts relative to the 
condition of persons residing in tenement-houses, as the commis- 
sioner may deem to be useful in carrying out the purposes of this 
chapter and the tenement-house laws, regulations and ordinances, 
from all dispensaries, hospitals, charitable or benevolent societies, 
infirmaries, prisons and schools, and from the managers, princi- 
pals and officers thereof; the managers, principals and officers of 
such institutions shall promptly give such information and make 
such reports, verbal or in writing, as may be required by the com- 
missioner. 

Sec. 1344n. Details of men to assist tenement-house depart- 
ment. The police commissioner, upon the requisition of the tene- 
ment-house commissioner, shall detail to the service of said tene- 
ment-house department, for the purpose of the enforcement of the 
acts relating to tenement-houses, suitable officers and men of ex- 
perience of at least five years' service in the police force; provided, 
that the number of officers and men so detailed shall not at any 
time exceed one hundred; and provided further, that the tene- 
ment-house department shall pay monthly to the police depart- 
ment a sum equal to the pay of all officers and men so detailed. 
These officers and men shall belong to the sanitary company of 
police, and shall report to the tenement-house commissioner. In 
making such detail the police commissioner shall give preference 
to those officers and men who have belonged for not less than five 
years to the sanitary company of the police assigned to the depart- 
ment of health. All other officers and men so detailed shall, when 
ever the tenement-house commissioner so requests, be selected 



270 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

from those who have passed a competitive civil-service examina- 
tion for their qualification for this service. The tenement-house 
commissioner may report back to the police department for pun- 
ishment any member of said company guilty of any breach of or- 
der or discipline, or of neglecting his duty, and thereupon the po- 
lice commissioner shall detail another officer or man in his place, 
and the discipline of the members of the sanitary company shall be 
in the jurisdiction of the police department, but at any time the 
tenement-house commissioner may object to any member of said 
sanitary company on the ground of inefficiency, and thereupon an- 
other officer or man shall be detailed in his place. 



III. 

RULES AND REGULATIONS FOR PLUMBING, DRAIN- 
AGE, WATER-SUPPLY AND VENTILATION OF 
BUILDINGS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF BUILDINGS 
OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK. 
I. 
Definition of Terms. 

1. The term " private sewer " is applied to main sewers that are 
not constructed by and under the supervision of the department 
of sewers. 

2. The term " house-sewer ' ? is applied to that part of the main 
drain or sewer extending from a point two feet outside of the outer 
wall of the building, vault or area, to its connection with public- 
sewer, private sewer or cesspool. 

3. The term " house-drain " is applied to that part of the main 
horizontal drain and its branches inside the walls of the building, 
vault or area, and extending to and connecting with the house- 
sewer. 

4. The term " soil-pipe " is applied to any vertical line of pipe 
extending through roof, receiving the discharge of one or more 
water-closets, with or without other fixtures. 

5. The term " waste-pipe " is applied to any pipe, extending 
through roof, receiving the discharge from any fixtures except 
water-closets. 

6. The term " vent-pipe n is applied to any special pipe provided 
to ventilate the system of piping and to prevent trap siphonage 
and back pressure. 

II. 
Materials and Workmanship. 

7. All materials must be of the best quality, free from defects, 
and all work must be executed in a thorough, workmanlike 
manner. 

8. All cast-iron pipes and fittings must be uncoated, sound. 
cylindrical and smooth, free from cracks, sand holes and other de- 

271 



272 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION 

fects, and of uniform thickness and of the grade knoAvn in com- 
merce as " extra heavy." 

9. Pipe, including the hub, shall weigh not less than the follow- 
ing average weights per linear foot: 

Weights Per 

Diameters. Linear Foot. 

2 inches 5J pounds. 



3 

4 
5 
6 

7 

8 

10 

12 



9J 
13 
17 
20 
27 
33J 
45 
54 



10. The size, weight and maker's name must be cast on each 
length of the pipe. 

11. All joints must be made with picked oakum and molten lead 
and be made gas-tight. Twelve (12) ounces of fine, soft pig lead 
must be used at each joint for each inch in the diameter of the 
pipe. 

12. All wrought-iron and steel pipes must be equal in quality to 
" standard," and must be properly tested by the manufacturer. 
All pipe must be lap-welded. No plain black or uncoated pip^ 
will be permitted. 

13. Wrought-iron and steel pipes must be galvanized, and each 
length must have the weight and maker's name stamped on it. 

14. Fittings for vent-pipes on wrought-iron and steel pipes may 
be the ordinary cast or malleable steam and water fittings. 

15. Fittings for waste or soil and refrigerator waste-pipes must 
be the special extra heavy cast-iron recessed and threaded drainage 
fittings with smooth interior water-way and threads tapped, so as 
to give a uniform grade to branches of not less than one-fourth of 
an inch per foot. All fittings for wrought-iron or steel pipe must 
be galvanized. 

16. All joints to be screwed joints made up with red lead, and 
the burr formed in cutting must be carefully reamed out. 

17. Short nipples on wrought-iron or steel pipe, where the un- 
threaded part of the pipe is less than one and one-half inches long, 



REGULATIONS FOR PLUMBING. 



273 



must be of the thickness and weight known as " extra heavy " or 
" extra strong." 

18. The pipe shall not be less than the following average thick- 
ness and weight per linear foot: 

Diameters. 

li inches 14 inches. 

2 

2J 

3 

31 

4 

4i 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 
11 
12 



thicknesses. 


Weights Per 
Linear Foot. 


.14 inches. 


2.68 


pounds. 


.15 " 


3.61 


" 


.20 " 


5.74 


" 


.21 " 


7.54 


" 


.22 " 


9.00 


u 


.23 " 


10.66 


a 


.24 " 


12.34 


a 


.25 " 


14.50 


a 


.28 » 


18.76 


a 


.30 " 


23.27 


it 


.32 " 


28.18 


(£ 


.34 " 


33.70 


" 


.36 " 


40.06 


(( 


.37 " 


45.02 


(( 


.37 " 


48.98 


" 



19. All brass pipe for soil, waste and vent pipes and solder nip- 
ples must be thoroughly annealed, seamless, drawn, brass tubing, 
of standard iron-pipe gauge. 

20. Connections on brass pipe and between brass pipe and traps 
on iron pipe must not be made with slip joints or couplings. 
Threaded connections on brass pipe must be of the same size as 
iron pipe threads for same size of pipe and be tapered. 

21. The following average thicknesses and weights per linear foot 
will be required: 

Weights Per 
Linear Foot. 

2.84 pounds. 

3.82 



Diameters. 

H inches. 

2 " . 
24 " . 

3 " . 

n " . 

4 " . 



Thicknesses. 

.14 inches. 

.15 

.20 

.21 

.22 

.23 

.24 

.25 

.28 



6.08 
7.92 
9.54 
11.29 
13.08 
15.37 
19.88 



274 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

22. Brass ferrules must be best quality, bell-shaped, extra heavy 
cast brass, not less than four inches long and two and one-quarter, 
three and one-half inches, and four and one-half inches in diameter, 
and not less than the following weights: 

Diameters. Weights. 

2\ inches 1 pound ounces. 

Si " 1 " 12' " 

4J " 2 " 8 

23. One and one-half inch ferrules are not permitted. 

24. Soldering nipples must be heavy cast brass or of brass pipe, 
iron-pipe size. When cast they must not be less than the follow- 
ing weights : 

Diameters. Weights. 

1J inches pounds 8 ounces 

2 " " 14 " 

2 J " 1 " 6 " 

3 " 2 " " 

4 " 3 " 8 " 

25. Brass screw caps for cleanouts must be ex£ra heavy, not less 
than one-eighth of an inch thick. The screw cap must have a solid 
square or hexagonal nut, not less than one inch high, with a least 
diameter of one and one-half inches. The body of the eleanout 
ferrule must be at least equal in weight and thickness to the calk- 
ing ferrule for the same size of pipe. 

26. Where cleanouts are required by rules and by the approved 
plans, the screw cap must be of brass. The engaging parts must 
have not less than six threads of iron-pipe size and be tapered. 
Cleanouts must be of full size of trap up to four inches in 
diameter, and not less than four inches for larger traps. 

27. The use of lead pipes is restricted to the short branches of 
the soil- and waste-pipes, bends and traps, roof connections of in- 
side leaders. " Short branches " of lead pipe shall be construed to 
joints. 

5 feet of lj-inch pipe. 
4 feet of 2-inch pipe. 
2 feet of 3-inch pipe. 
2 feet of 4-inch pipe. 

28. All connections between lead pipes and between lead and 



BEGULATIONS FOR PLUMBIJSG. 275 

brass or copper pipes must be made by means of " wiped " solder 
joints. 

29. All lead waste-, soil-, vent- and flush-pipes must be of the 
best quality, known in commerce as "D, M and of not less than the 
following weights per linear foot: 

Weights Per 
Diameters. Linear Foot. 

1J inches (for flush pipes only) 2i pounds. 

li " * 3~ 

2 " 4 

3 " 6 

4 and 4 J inches 8 " 

30. All lead traps and bends must be of the same weights and 
thicknesses as their corresponding pipe branches. Sheet lead for 
roof flashings must be six-pound lead and must extend not less 
than six inches from the pipe and the joint made water-tight. 

31. Copper tubing when used for inside leader roof connections 
must be seamless drawn tubing, not less than 22-gauge, and when 
used for roof flashings must be not less than 18-gauge. 

III. 

General Regulations. 

32. The entire plumbing and drainage system of each building 
must be entirely separate and independent of that of any other 
building. 

33. Each building must be separately and independently con- 
nected with a public or private sewer, or cesspool. 

34. Every building must have its sewer connections directly in 
front of the building, unless permission is otherwise granted by the 
commissioner of buildings. 

35. Where there is no sewer in the street or avenue, and it is 
possible to construct a private sewer to connect in an adjacent 
street or avenue, a private sewer must be constructed. It must 
be laid outside the curb, under the roadway of the street. 

36. Cesspools and privy-vaults will be permitted only after it 
has been shown to the satisfaction of the commissioner of build- 
ings that their use is absolutely necessary. 

37. When allowed, thev must be constructed strictly in accord- 



276 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION 

ance with the terms of the permit issued by the commissioner of 
buildings. 

38. Cesspools must not be used as privy-vaults. Cesspools and 
privy-vaults must be at least twenty-five feet from any building 
and should be on the same lot with the building for which its 
use is intended. Cesspools and privy-vaults w T hen constructed of 
brick must be eight inches thick; of stone, twenty inches thick. 

39. All cesspools and privy-vaults must be made water-tight. 

40. As soon as it is possible to connect with a public sewer, the 
owner must have the cesspool and privy- vault emptied, cleaned and 
disinfected, and filled with fresh earth, and have a sewer connec- 
tion made in the manner herewith prescribed. 

41. All pipe-lines must be supported at the base on brick piers 
or by heavy iron hangers from the cellar- ceiling beams, and along 
the line by heavy iron hangers at intervals of not more than' ten 
feet. 

42. All pipes issuing from extension or elsewhere, which would 
otherwise open within thirty feet of the window of any building, 
must be extended above the highest roof and well away and above 
all windows. 

43. The arrangement of all pipes must be as straight and direct 
as possible. Offsets will be permitted only when unavoidable. 

44. All pipes and traps should, where possible, be exposed to 
view. They should always be readily accessible for inspection and 
repairing. 

45. In every building where there is a leader connected to the 
drain, if there are any plumbing fixtures, there must be at least 
one four (4) inch pipe extending above the roof for ventilation. 

IV. 
Yard, Area and Other Drains. 

46. All yards, areas and courts must be drained. 

47. Tenement-houses and lodging-houses must have their yards, 
areas and courts drained into the sewer. 

48. These drains, when sewer-connected, must have connections 
not less than three inches in diameter. They should be controlled 

.by one trap — the leader trap if possible. 

49. Cellar drains will be permitted only where they can be con- 
nected to a trap with a permanent water seal. 

50. Subsoil drains should discharge into a sump or receiving- 



REGULATIONS FOE PLUMBING. 277 

tank, the contents of which must be lifted and discharged into 
the drainage system above the cellar bottom by some approved 
method. Where directly sewer-connected, they must be cut off 
from the rest of the plumbing system by a brass flap valve on the 
inlet to the catch-basin, and the trap on the drain from the catch- 
basin must be water-supplied, as required for cellar drains. 

51. Floor or other drains will only be permitted when it can be 
shown to the satisfaction of the commissioner of buildings that 
their use is absolutely necessary and arrangements made to main- 
tain a permanent water seal in the traps. 

V. 

Leaders. 

52. All buildings shall be kept provided with proper metallic 
leaders for conducting water from the roofs in such manner as 
shall protect the walls and foundations of said buildings from 
injury. In no case shall the water from said leaders be allowed 
to flow upon the sidewalk, but the same shall be conducted by 
pipe or pipes to the sewer. If there be no sewer in the street upon 
which such buildings front, then the water from said leaders shall 
be conducted by proper pipe or pipes below the surface of the 
sidewalk to the street gutter. 

53. Inside leaders must be made of cast iron, wrought iron or 
steel, with roof connections made gas- and water-tight by means 
of a heavy lead or copper-drawn tubing wiped or soldered to a 
brass ferrule or nipple calked or screwed into the pipe. 

54. Outside leaders may be of sheet metal, but they must con- 
nect with the house-drain by means of a cast-iron pipe extending 
vertically 5 feet above the grade level. 

55. Leaders must be trapped with cast-iron running traps so 
placed as to prevent freezing. 

56. Rain-w T ater leaders must not be used as soil, waste or vent 
pipes, nor shall any such pipe be used as a leader. 

VI. 

Tlie House-sewer 9 House-drain, House-trap and Fresh-air Inlet. 

57. Old house-sewers can be used in connection with the new 
buildings or new plumbing only when they are found, on examina- 
tion by the plumbing inspector, to conform in all respects to the 
requirements governing new sewers. 



278 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

58. When a proper foundation, consisting of a natural bed of 
earth, rock, etc., can be obtained, the house-sewer can be of earthen- 
ware pipe. 

59. Where the ground is made or filled in, or where the pipes 
are less than three feet deep, or in any case where there is danger 
of settlement by frost or from any cause, the house-sewer must 
be of extra heavy cast-iron pipe, with lead-calked joints. 

60. The house-drain and its branches must be of extra heavj 
cast iron, when underground, and of extra heavy cast iron or gal- 
vanized wrought iron or steel when above ground. 

61. The house-drain must properly connect with the house-sewer 
at a point # two feet outside of the outer front vault or area wall 
of the building. An arched or other proper opening must be pro- 
vided for the drain in the wall to prevent damage by settlement. 

62. If possible, the house-drain must be above the cellar floor. 
The house-drain must be supported at intervals of ten feet by 
eight-inch brick piers or suspended from the floor beams, or be 
otherwise properly supported by heavy iron-pipe hangers at in- 
terval of not more than ten feet. The use of pipe hooks for sup- 
porting drains is prohibited. 

63. No steam-exhaust, boiler blow-off or drip- pipe shall be con- 
nected with the house-drain or sewer. Such pipes must first dis- 
charge into a proper condensing tank, and from this a proper out- 
let to the house-sewer outside of the building must be provided. 
In low-pressure steam systems the condensing tank may be omit- 
ted, but the waste connection must be otherwise as above required. 

64. The house-drain and house-sewer must be run as direct as 
possible, with a fall of at least one-quarter inch per foot, all 
changes in direction made with proper fittings, and all connections 
made with Y branches and one-eighth and one-sixteenth bends. 

65. The house-sewer and house-drain must be at least four inc 

in diameter where water-closets discharge into them. Where ra 

water discharges into them the house-sewer and house-drain up 

to the leader connections must be in accordance with the following 

table: 

Fall ^-inch Per 
Diameter. Foot. Fall H-inch Per Foot. 

6 inches 5,000 sq. ft. 7,500 sq. ft. of drainage of area. 

7 " 6,900 " 10,300 " 

8 " 9,100 " 13,600 " 

9 " U,600 « 17,400 « « 



BEGULATION8 FOR PLUMBING 270 

66. Full size Y and T branch fittings for handhole cleanouts must 
be provided where required on house-drain and its branches. 

67. An iron running trap must be placed on the house-drain 
near the wall of the house, and on the sewer side of all connections, 
except a drip-pipe where one is used. If placed outside the house 
or below the cellar floor, it must be made accessible in a brick man- 
hole, the walls of which must be eight inches thick, with an iron 
or flagstone cover. When outside the house it must never be less 
than three feet below the surface of the ground. 

The house-trap must have two cleanouts with brass screw-cap 
ferrules calked in. 

68. A fresh-air inlet must be connected with the house-drain just 
inside of the house-trap, where under ground it will be of extra 
heavy cast iron. Where possible it will extend to the external 
air, and finish with an automatic device, approved by the depart- 
ment of buildings, at a point just outside the front wall of build- 
ing. The fresh-air inlet must be of the same size as the drain up 
to four inches. For five- and- six-inch drains it must be not less 
than four inches in diameter. For seven- and eight-inch drains not 
less than six inches in diameter, or its equivalent, and for large 
drains not less than eight inches in diameter, or its equivalent. 

The curb inlet and the return-bend inlet are hereby prohibited. 

VII. 
Soil- and Waste-pipes. 

69. All main soil-, waste- or vent-pipes must be of iron, steel or 
brass. 

TO. When they receive the discharge of fixtures on any floor 
above the first, they must be extended in full calibre at lea-st one 
foot above the roof coping, and well away from all shafts, windows 
chimneys or other ventilating openings. When less than four 
inches in diameter, they must be enlarged to four inches at a poin f 
not less than one foot below the roof surface by an increaser not 
less than nine (9) inches long. 

71. Xo caps, cowls or bends shall be affixed to the top of sueh 
pipe. 

72. In tenement-houses and lodging-houses wire baskets must 
be securely fastened into the opening of each pipe that is in an ac- 
cessible position. 



280 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION 

73. Necessary offsets above tie highest fixture branch must not 
be made at an angle of less than 45 degrees to the horizontal. 

74. Soil- and waste-pipes must have proper Y branches for all 
fixture connections. 

75. No connection to lead branches for water-closets or slop- 
sinks will be permitted, except the required branch vent. 

76. Branch soil- and waste-pipes must have a fall of at least one- 
quarter inch per foot. 

77. Short TY branches will be permitted on vertical pipes only. 
Long one-quarter bends and long TYs are permitted. Short one- 
quarter bends and double hubs, short roof increasers and common 
offsets, and bands and saddles are prohibited. 

78. The diameters of soil- and waste-pipes must not be less than 
those given in the following tables : 

Main soil-pipes 4 inches 

Main soil-pipes for water-closets on five or more floors. . . 5 " 

Branch soil-pipes 4 " 

Main waste-pipes 2 " 

Main waste-pipes for kitchen sinks on five or more floors . 3 " 

Branch waste-pipes for laundry tubs 1J " 

When set in ranges of three or more r 2 " 

Branch waste for kitchen sinks 2 " 

Branch waste for urinals 2 " 

Branch waste for other fixtures 1J " 

VIII. 
Vent-pipes. 

79. All traps must be protected from syphonage and back-pres- 
sure, and the drainage system ventilated by special lines of vent- 
pipes. 

80. All vent-pipe lines and main branches must be of iron, steel 
or brass. They must be increased in diameter and extended above 
the roof as required for waste-pipes. They may be connected with 
the adjoining soil or waste line well above the highest fixture, but 
this will not be permitted when there are fixtures on more than six 
floors. 

81. All offsets must be made at an angle of not less than forty- 
five degrees to the horizontal, and all lines must be connected at 



REGULATIONS FOR PLUMBING. 281 

the bottom with a soil- or waste-pipe or the drain in such a manner 
as to prevent the accumulation of rust-scale. 

82. Branch vent-pipes should be kept above the top of all con- 
necting fixtures, to prevent the use of vent-pipes as soil- or waste- 
pipes. Branch vent-pipes should be connected as near to the crown 
of the trap as possible. 

83. Earthenware traps for water-closets and slop-sinks must be 
ventilated from the branch soil- or waste-pipe just below the trap, 
and this branch vent-pipe must be so connected as to prevent ob- 
struction, and no waste-pipe connected between it and the fixture. 
Earthenware traps must have no vent-horns. 

84. No sheet metal, brick or other flue shall be used as a vent- 
pipe. 

85. The sizes of vent-pipes throughout must not be less than the 
following: 

For main vents and long, branches, two inches in diameter; for 
water-closets on three or more floors, three inches in diameter; for 
other fixtures on less than seven floors, two inches in diameter; 
three-inch vent pipe will be permitted for less than nine stories; 
for more than eight and less than sixteen stories, four inches in 
diameter; for more than fifteen and less than twenty-two stories, 
frt§ inches in diameter; for more than twenty-one stories, six 
inches in diameter; branch vents for traps larger than two inches, 
tw r o inches in diameter; branch vents for traps two inches or less, 
one and one-half inches in diameter. 

For fixtures other than water-closets and slop-sinks, and for more 
than eight (8) stories, vent-pipes may be one (1) inch smaller 
than above stated. 

IX. 
Traps. 

86. No form of trap will be permitted to be used unless it 
has been approved by the board of buildings. 

87. Every fixture must be separately trapped by a water-seal- 
ing trap placed as close to the fixture outlet 'as possible. 

88. A set of wash-trays may connect with a single trap, or into 
the trap of an adjoining sink, provided both sink and tub waste 
outlets are on the same side of the waste line, and the sink is 
nearest the line. When so connected the waste-pipe from the 
wash-trays must be branched in below the water seal. 



282 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION 

89. The discharge from any fixture must not pass through more 
than one trap before reaching the house-drain. 

90. All traps must be well supported and set true with respe t 
to their water levels. 

91. All fixtures other than water-closets and urinals must have 
strong metallic strainers or bars over the outlets to prevent ob- 
struction of the waste-pipe. 

92. All exposed or accessible traps, except water-closet traps, 
must have brass trap-screws for cleaning the trap placed on the 
inlet side, or below the water level. 

93. All iron traps for house-drain, yard and other drains and 
leaders must be running traps with handhole cleanouts of full size 
of the traps when same are less than five (5) inches. All traps 
underground must be made accessible by brick manholes with 
proper covers. 

94. Overflow pipes from fixtures must in all cases be connected 
on the inlet side of traps. 

95. All earthenware traps must have heavy brass floor-plates 
soldered to the lead bends and bolted to the trap flange, and the 
joint made gas-tight with red or white lead. The use of rubber 
washers for floor connections is prohibited. _ 

96. No trap shall be placed at the foot of main soil- and waste- 
pipe lines. 

97. The sizes for traps must not be less than those given in the 
following table: 

Traps for water-closets. 4 inches in diameter 

Traps for slop-sinks 2 

Traps for kitchen-sinks 2 

Traps for wash-trays 2 

Traps for urinals 2 

Traps for other fixtures 1J 

Traps for leaders, areas, floor and other drains must be at least 
3 inches in diameter. 

X. 

Safe and Refrigerator Waste-pipes. 

98. Safe and refrigerator waste-pipes must be of galvanized 
iron, and be not less than one and one-quarter (1-|) inch in diam- 
eter, with lead branches of the same size, with strainers over the 
inlets secured by a bar soldered to the lead branch. 



REGULATIONS FOR PLUMBING. 283 

99. Safe waste-pipes must not connect directly with any part of 
the plumbing system. 

100. Safe waste-pipes must either discharge over an open, 
water-supplied, publicly-placed, ordinarily-used sink, placed not 
more than three and one-half feet above the cellar floor. 

101. The safe waste-pipe from a refrigerator must be trapped at 
the bottom of the line only and cannot discharge upon the ground 
or floor. It must discharge over an ordinary portable pan, or over 
some properly-trapped, water-supplied sink, as above. In no case 
shall the refrigerator waste-pipe discharge over a sink located in 
a room used for living purposes. 

102. The branches on vertical lines must be made by Y fittings, 
and be carried up to the safe with as much pitch as possible. 

103. Lead safes must be graded and neatly turned over bevel 
strips at their edges. 

104. Where there is an offset on a refrigerator waste-pipe in the 
cellar, there must be cleanouts to control the horizontal part of the 
pipe. 

105. In tenement-houses and lodging-houses the refrigerator 
waste-pipes must extend above the roof, and must not be larger 
than one and one-half inches, nor the branches smaller than one 
and one-quarter inches. 

106. Refrigerator waste-pipes, except in tenement-houses, and 
all safe waste-pipes, must have brass flap-valves at their lower 
ends. 

XI. 

107. In tenement-houses, lodging-houses, factories, workshops 
and all public buildings, the entire water-closet apartment and side 
walls to a height of sixteen inches from the floor, except at the 
door, must be made waterproof with asphalt, cement, tile, metal 
or other waterproof material as approved by the board of build- 
ings. 

108. In tenement-houses and lodging-houses the water-closet and 
urinal apartments must have a window opening to the outer air, 
except that tenement- or lodging-houses three stories or less in 
height may have such window opening on a ventilating shaft not 
less than ten square feet in area. 

109. In all buildings the outside partition of such apartment 
must extend to the ceiling or be independently ceiled over, and 



284: HANDBOOK ON SANITATION 

these partitions must be air-tight. The outside partitions must in- 
clude a window opening to outer air on the lot whereon the build- 
ing is situated, or some other approved means of ventilation must 
be provided. When necessary to properly light such apartments, 
the upper part of the partitions must be made of glass. The 
interior partitions of such apartments must be dwarfed partitions. 

110. The general water-closet accommodations for a tenement- 
or lodging-house cannot be placed in the cellar. 

111. No water-closet can be placed outside of a building. 

112. The closets must be set open and free from all enclosing 
woodwork. 

113. Where water-closets will not support a rim seat, the seat 
must be supported on galvanized-iron legs, and a drip-tray must 
be used. 

114. Every earthenware closet in all new work and in all al- 
terations where it is not impossible to use it because of water- 
pipes or other obstructions, must be set on a natural stone slab> 
Sand or artificial stone or tile will not be allowed. 

115. All water-closets must have earthenware flushing-rim 
bowls; "pipe-wash" bowls or hoppers will not be permitted. 

116. Pan, valve, plunger, off set- washout and -other water-closets 
having an unventilated space, or whose walls are not thoroughly 
washed at each discharge, will not be permitted. 

117. Long hoppers will not be permitted, except where there 
is an exposure to frost. 

118. The connections of traps must be made to main soil-, waste- 
or vent-pipe, by means of lead-calked or screwed joints. Drip- 
trays must be enamelled on both sides and secured in place. 

119. In all sewer-connected occupied buildings there must be at 
least one water-closet, and there must be additional closets so that 
there will never be more than 15 persons per closet. 

120. In tenement-houses and lodging-houses there must be one 
water-closet on each floor, and when there is more than one family 
on a floor, there will be one additional water-closet for every two 
additional families. 

121. In lodging-houses where there are more than 15 persons on 
any floor, there must be an additional water-closet on that floor 
for every 15 additional persons or fraction thereof. 

122. Water-closets and urinals must never be connected directly 
with or flushed from the water-supply pipes. 



REGULATIONS FOR PLUMBING. 285 

123. Water-closets and urinals must be flushed from separate 
cisterns on each floor,, the water from which is used for no other 
purposes. 

124. The overflow of cisterns may discharge into the bowls of 
the closet, but in no case connect with any part of the drainage 
system. 

125. Iron water-closet and urinal cisterns and automatic water- 
closet and urinal cisterns are prohibited. 

126. The copper lining of water-closet and urinal cisterns must 
not be lighter than ten (10) ounce copper. 

127. Water-closet flush-pipes must not be less than one and one- 
fourth inches and urinal flush-pipes one (1) inch in diameter, and 
if of lead must not weigh less than two and one-half pounds and 
two pounds per linear feet. Flush couplings must be of full size 
of the pipe. 

428. Latrine's trough water-closets and similar appliances may 
be used only on written permit from the said commissioner of 
buildings, and must be set and arranged as may be required by 
the terms of the permit. 

129. All urinals must be constructed of materials impervious to 
moisture that it will not corrode under the action of urine. The 
floor and wall of the urinal apartments must be lined with similar 
non-absorbent and non-corrosive material. 

130. The platforms or treads of urinal stalls must never be con- 
nected independently to the plumbing system, nor can they be 
connected to any safe waste-pipe. 

131. Iron trough water-closets and trough urinals must be en- 
amelled or galvanized. 

132. In tenement-houses and lodging-houses sinks must be en- 
tirely open, on iron legs or brackets, without any enclosing wood- 
work. 

133. Wooden washtubs are prohibited. Cement or artificial stone 
tubs will not be permitted unless approved by the board of build- 
ings. 

XII. 
Water -supply for Fixtures, 

134. All water-closets and other plumbing fixtures must be pro- 
vided with a sufficient supply of water for flushing, to keep them 
in a proper and cleanly condition. 



286 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

135. When the water-pressure is not sufficient to supply freely 
and continuously all fixtures, a house-supply tank must be pro- 
vided, of sufficient size to afford an ample supply of water to all 
fixtures at all times. Such tanks must be supplied from the pres- 
sure or by pumps, as may be necessary; when from the pressure, 
ball-cocks must be provided. 

136. If water-pressure is not sufficient to fill house-tank, power 
pumps must be provided for filling them in tenement-houses, lodg- 
ing-houses, factories and workshops. 

137. Tanks must be covered so as to exclude dust, and must be 
so located as to prevent water contamination by gas and odors 
from plumbing fixtures. 

138. House supply-tanks must be of wood or iron, or of wood 
lined with tinned and planished copper. 

139. House-tanks must be supported on iron beams. 

140. The overflow-pipe should discharge upon the roof, where 
possible, and in such cases should be brought down to within six 
(6) inches of the roof, or it must be trapped and discharged over 
an open and water-supplied sink not in the same room, not over 
3J feet above the floor. In no case shall the overflow be connected 
with any part of the plumbing system. 

141. Emptying pipes for such tanks must be provided, and be 
discharged in the manner required for overflow-pipes, and may be 
branched into overflow-pipes. 

142. No service-pipes or supplying-pipes should be run, and no 
tanks, flushing cisterns or water-supplied fixtures should be placed 
where they will be exposed to frost. 

143. Where so placed they shall be properly packed and boxed in 
such a manner as to prevent freezing. 

XIII. 
Testing the Plumbing System. 

144. The entire plumbing and drainage system within the build- 
ing must be tested by the plumber, in the presence of a plumbing 
inspector, under a water or air test, as directed. All pipes must 
remain uncovered in every part until they have successfully passed 
the test. The plumber must securely close all openings as directed 
by the inspector of plumbing. The use of wooden plugs for this 
purpose is prohibited. 



REGULATIONS FOR PLUMBING, 287 

145. The water test will be applied by closing the lower end of 
the main house-drain and filling the pipes to the highest opening 
above the roof with water. The water test shall include at one 
time the house-drain and branches, all vertical and horizontal soil, 
waste and vent and leader lines and all branches therefrom "to 
point above the surface of the finished floor and beyond the fin- 
ished face of walls and partitions. Deviation from the above rule 
will not be permitted, unless upon written application to and ap- 
proval by the commissioner of buildings. If the drain or any part 
of the system is to be tested separately, there must be a head of 
water at least six feet (6) above all parts of the work so tested, 
and special provision must be made for including all joints and 
connections in at least one test. 

146. The air test will be applied with a force-pump and mercury 
columns under ten pounds pressure, equal to twenty inches of mer- 
cury. The use of spring gauges is prohibited. 

147. After the completion of the work, when the water has been 
turned on and the traps filled, the plumber must make a pepper- 
mint or smoke test in the presence of a plumbing inspector and 
as directed by him. 

148. The material and labor for the tests must be furnished by 
the plumber. Where the peppermint test is used, two ounces of 
oil of peppermint must be provided for each line up to five stories 
and basement in height, and for each additional five stories or 
fraction thereof, one additional ounce of peppermint must be pro- 
vided for each line. 



IV. 

DISINFECTANTS AND METHODS OF DISINFECTION 
AS RECOMMENDED BY THE DEPARTMENT OF 
HEALTH OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK. 

DISINFECTION AND DISINFECTANTS, 

Sunlight, pure air and cleanliness are always very important 
agents in maintaining health and in protecting the body against 
many forms of illness. When, however, it becomes necessary to 
guard against such special dangers as accumulated filth or con- 
tagious diseases, disinfection is also essential. In order that dis- 
infection shall afford complete protection, it must be thorough, 
and perfect cleanliness is better, even in the presence of contagious 
disease, than poor disinfection. 

All forms of fermentation, decomposition, and putrefaction, as 
Well as the infectious and contagious diseases, are caused by 
minute living germs. The object of disinfection is to kill these 
germs. Decomposition and putrefaction should at times be pre- 
vented by the immediate destruction or removal from the neigh- 
borhood of the dwelling, of all useless putrescible substances. 
Impure air, especially air from sewers, cesspools, putrefactive mat- 
ter, etc., causes conditions in man which are very favorable to the 
contraction of contagious diseases. 

In order that the sick room shall be readily kept clean and as 
free as possible from the germs causing the infectious diseases, it 
is important that all articles not necessary for immediate use in 
the care of the sick person, especially upholstered furniture, car- 
pets, curtains and bric-a-brac, should be removed from the room 
to be occupied by the sick person. If another room has already 
been occupied, it must, of course, be disinfected. 

AGENTS FOR CLEANSING AND DISINFECTION. 
Too much emphasis cannot be placed upon the importance of 
sunlight, fresh air and cleanliness, both as regards the person, 

288 



METHODS OF DISINFECTION. 289 

the dwelling and its surroundings, in preserving health and pro- 
tecting the body from all kinds of disease. Sunlight and fresh air 
should be freely admitted through open windows, and personal 
cleanliness should be attained by frequently washing the hands 
and body. 

Cleanliness in dwellings, and in all places where men go, may 
under ordinary circumstances be well maintained by the use of the 
three following solutions: 

1. Soap-suds Solution. — For simple cleansing, or for cleansing be- 
fore or after the methods of disinfection by chemicals described 
below, one ounce of common washing soda should be added to 
twelve quarts of hot soap (soft soap) and water. 

2. Strong Soda Solution. — This, which is a stronger and more 
effective cleansing solution, is made by dissolving one-half pound 
of common washing soda in three gallons of hot water. This so- 
lution thus obtained should be applied by scrubbing with a hard 
brush. 

3. Weak Soda Solution. — This is made by dissolving one ounce 
of common washing soda in twelve quarts of hot water. 

When it becomes necessary to arrest putrefaction or to prevent 
the spread of contagious diseases by killing the living germs which 
cause them, more powerful agents must be employed than those 
required for simple cleanliness, and these are called disinfectants. 
The following are some of the most reliable disinfectants: 

4. Heat. — Complete destruction by fire is the best method of dis- 
posing of infected articles of small value; but continued high tem- 
peratures not as great as that of fire will destroy all forms of 
life. Thus, boiling or steaming in closed vessels for one-half hour, 
or boiling in the Weak Soda Solution in open vessels for the same 
time, will destroy all disease germs. Dry heat is not so effective 
a germ destroyer as moist heat, except at much higher tempera- 
tures, which will destroy or injure many combustible materials. 

5. Carbolic Acid Solution — Lysol-Creolin. — Dissolve six ounces 
of carbolic acid in one gallon of hot water. This makes approxi- 
mately a five per cent, solution of carbolic acid, which, for many 
purposes, may be diluted with an equal quantity of water. Great 
care must be taken that the pure acid does not come in contact 
with the skin, as it is very corrosive. The commercial colored 
impure carbolic acid should not be used in watery solutions as it 
contains a large percentage of eresol, which is insoluble in water 



290 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

and has, therefore, little value. The two alkaline solutions of 
cresol, named lysol and creolin, are strong disinfectants and non- 
corrosive and can be used in place of the solutions of carbolic 
acid of equal strength. 

6. Bichloride Solution (bichloride of mercury or corrosive sub- 
limate). — Dissolve sixty grains of pulverized corrosive sublimate 
and two tablespoonfuls of common salt in one gallon of hot water. 
This makes approximately a 1 to 1000 solution. This solution 
must be kept in glass, earthen or wooden vessels (not in metal 
vessels), and is not to be used for disinfecting metal articles. 

The Carbolic and Bichloride Solutions are very poisonous when 
taken by the mouth, but are harmless when used externally. 

7. Milk of Lime. — This mixture is made by adding one quart 
of dry freshly slaked lime to four or five quarts of water. (Lime 
is slaked by pouring a small quantity of water on a lump of quick- 
lime. The lime becomes hot, crumbles, and as the slaking is com- 
pleted a white powder results. The powder is used to make Milk 
of Lime). Air-slaked lime has no value as a disinfectant. 

8. Dry Chloride of Lime. — This must be fresh and kept in closed 
vessels or packages. It should have the strong pungent odor of 
chlorine. 

Chlorinated Lime Solution. — This solution is made by adding 
six ounces of fresh chloride of lime, having a strong odor of 
chlorine, to one gallon of water. It must be well mixed and should 
be prepared one hour before using. This solution, when fresh, is 
a reliable disinfectant and deodorizer. 

9. Formalin. — This is a 40 per cent, solution of formaldehyde 
gas in water. It is, in a 5 per cent, solution, an efficient disin- 
fectant and deodorizer. A method which gives fairly efficient re- 
sults, is to hang large cloths (sheets) in the room and sprinkle or 
spray them with formalin, as recommended by the Chicago Health 
Department. For each 1^000 cubic feet of space in the room, 10 
ounces of formalin should be used. 

10. Sulphurous Acid Gas, i.e., the gas produced by burning 
sulphur, is a fairly efficient germicide under certain definite con- 
ditions. These conditions are, in brief, that all the germs should 
be freely exposed to the gas in a tightly closed room for at least 
eight hours, that the air of the room should be moist, ard that 
the amount of gas should be that generated by burning at least 
three pounds of sulphur for every 1,000 cubic feet of air space- 



METHODS OF DISINFECTION. 291 

The proprietary disinfectants which are so often widely ad- 
vertised, and whose composition is kept secret, are relatively ex- 
pensive and often unreliable and inefficient. It is important to 
remember that substances which destroy or disguise bad odors 
are not necessarily disinfectants. 

Xote. — The cost of the Carbolic Solution is much greater than 
that of the other solutions, but generally this solution is to be much 
preferred. When the cost is an important element, the Bichloride 
Solution may be substituted for all purposes for which the Carbolic 
Solution is recommended, except for the disinfection of discharges, 
eating utensils and articles made of metal, and of clothing, bed- 
ding, etc., which is very much soiled. Its poisonous character must 
be kept constantly in mind. 

METHODS OF DISIXFECTIOX IX INFECTIOUS AXD CON- 
TAGIOUS DISEASES. 

The most important diseases to be guarded against by disin- 
fection are Scarlet Fever, Measles, Diphtheria, Tuberculosis (Con- 
sumption), Smallpox, Typhoid and Typhus Fevers, Yellow Fever 
and Cholera. 

1. Hands and Person. — Dilute the Carbolic Acid, Lysol or Cre- 
olin Solutions with an equal amount of water, or use the Bi- 
chloride Solution without dilution. Hands soiled in caring for 
persons suffering from contagious diseases, or soiled portions of 
the patient's body, should be immediately washed with one of 
these solutions, and then thoroughly Avashed with soap and water. 
The nails should always be kept perfectly clean with a brush or 
nail-cleaner. Before eating, the hands should be first washed ir 
one of the above solutions, then thoroughly scrubbed with eoap 
and water by means of a brush, and finally dipped again in the 
disinfectant. 

2. Soiled Clothing, Towels, Napkins, Bedding, etc., should be 
immediately immersed, in the sick-room, in boiling water 
for one half hour, or in the Carbolic Solution for twelve hours. 
They can then be wrung out and washed in the usual way. Ar- 
ticles such as beds, woollen clothing, etc., which cannot be washed, 
should be referred to the Health Department for disinfection or 
destruction. 

3. Food and Drink. — Food thoroughly cooked and drinks that 



292 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION 

have been boiled are free from disease germs. Food and drinks, 
after cooking or boiling, if not immediately used, should be placed 
when cool in clean dishes or vessels and covered. In presence 
of an epidemic of Cholera or Typhoid Fever, milk and water used 
for drinking, cooking, washing dishes, etc., should always be 
boiled before using, and when Cholera is prevalent all persons 
should avoid eating uncooked fruit, fresh vegetables and ice. 

4. Discharges of all kinds, from the Mouth, Nose, Bladder and 
Bowels of patients suffering from contagious diseases, should be 
received into glass or earthen vessels containing the Carbolic Solu- 
tion or Milk of Lime, or they should be removed on pieces of 
cloth, which are immediately burnt or immersed in one of these 
solutions. Special care should be observed to disinfect at once 
the vomited matter and the intestinal discharges from Cholera 
patients, as these alone contain the dangerous germs. In Typhoid 
Fever the intestinal discharges and urine, and in Diphtheria, 
Measles and Scarlet Fever the discharges from the throat and 
nose all bring about infection and should be treated in the 
same manner. The volume of the solution used to disinfect dis- 
charges should be, with the Carbolic Solution, at least twice as 
great as that of the discharge, or with Milk £f Lime from four 
to five times as great. After standing for an hour or more, the 
disinfecting solution, with the discharges, may be thrown into 
the water-closet. Cloths, towels, napkins, bedding, or clothing 
soiled by the discharges must be at once placed in the Carbolic 
Solution and the hands of the attendants disinfected as described 
above. In convalescence from Measles and Scarlet Fever the 
scales from the skin (peeling) are also carriers of infection. To 
prevent the dissemination of disease by means of these scales, the 
skin should be carefully washed daily in warm water and soap. 
The external use of vaseline for the same purpose is recommended. 
After use, the soapsuds should be thrown into the water-closet and 
the vessel rinsed out with Carbolic Solution. 

The ordinary house filtration of water does not remove all the 
germs of disease, and cannot be depended upon to render the water 
safe in time of danger. 

The intestinal discharges (feces) need special treatment on ac- 
count of the difficulty with which the disinfectant fluids penetrate 
to all portions. To thoroughly disinfect a mass of feces, it is neces- 
sary to add to it double its amount of one of the strong disinfect- 



METHODS OF DISINFECTION. 293 

ing solutions and allow it to soak for twelve hours. If desired 
to hasten the process, the feeal matter covered by a carbolic acid 
or formalin*solution can be thoroughly mixed with the disinfectant, 
allowed to stand for one hour or thoroughly disinfected by boiling 
for thirty minutes. 

5. The Sputum from Consumptive Patients. — The importance of 
the proper disinfection of the sputum (expectoration) from con- 
sumptive patients is little understood. Consumption is a con- 
tagious disease, and is always the result of transmission from the 
sick to the healthy or from animals to man. The sputum con- 
tains the germs which cause the disease, and in great 'majority of 
cases is the source of infection. After being discharged, unless 
properly disposed of, it may become dry and pulverized and float 
in the air as dust. This dust contains the germs and is the com- 
mon cause of the disease through inhalation. In all cases, there- 
fore, the sputum should be disinfected when discharged. It should 
be received into covered cups containing the Carbolic, Lysol, or 
Formalin Solutions. Handkerchiefs soiled by it should be burned 
or soaked in the Carbolic Solution and then boiled. Dust from 
the walls, mouldings, pictures, etc., in rooms that have been oc- 
cupied by consumptive patients, contains the germs, and will 
produce tuberculosis in animals when used for their inoculation. 
Therefore, rooms should be thoroughly disinfected before they 
are again occupied. Rooms in which consumptives are living 
should never be dusted with a dry cloth or brush, but should al- 
ways be cleaned by wiping furniture, mantels, etc., with a damp 
cloth. This should afterward be burnt or disinfected by soaking 
in the Carbolic or Chlorinated Lime Solution, or by boiling in 
the Weak Soda Solution for half an hour. Carpets should be 
swept with a broom wrapped in a damp cloth, the latter being 
afterward disinfected as above. If the sputum of all consumptive 
patients were destroyed at once when discharged, a large propor- 
tion of the cases of the disease would be prevented. 

6. Closets, Kitchen and Hallway Sinks, etc. — Each time the 
closet is used for infected discharges, one pint of the Carbolic Solu- 
tion should be poured into the pan (after it is emptied) and al- 
lowed to remain there. All discharges should be disinfected before 
being thrown into the closet. Sinks should be flushed at least 
once daily. 

7. Dishes, Knives, Forks, Spoons, etc., used by a patient should 



294 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION 

be kept for his exclusive use, and not removed from the room. 
They should be boiled or washed first in the Carbolic Solution, 
then in hot Soap-su.ds, and finally rinsed in hot water. These 
washing fluids should afterward be thrown into the water-closet. 
The remains of the patient's meals may be burned or thrown into 
a vessel containing one of the disinfectant solutions and allowed 
to stand for one hour before being thrown away. 

8. Rooms and their Contents. — Rooms which have been occupied 
by persons suffering from contagious disease should not be again 
occupied until they have been thoroughly disinfected by the Health 
Department and renovated by the owner. For this purpose either 
careful fumigation with sulphur or formaldehyde gas will be em- 
ployed, or one of these combined with the following procedure: 
Carpets, curtains and upholstered furniture which have been soiled 
by discharges, or which have been exposed to infection in the 
room during the illness, will be removed for disinfection by steam. 
Woodwork, floors and plain furniture will be thoroughly washed 
with the Soap-suds and Bichloride Solutions. 

Books, leather articles and those which are readily discolored, 
will be removed by the Department and disinfected by exposing 
them for 12 hours to formaldehyde vapor in a^small chamber. 

9. Rags, Clothes and Articles of Small Value, which have been 
soiled by discharges or infected in other ways, should be burned. 

10. In Case of Death, the body should be completely wrapped 
in several thicknesses of cloth wrung out of the Carbolic or Bi- 
chloride Solution and placed in an hermetically sealed coffin. 

If notified, the Department of Health of New York City will 
disinfect rooms and their contents without cost to the tenant, 
after the rooms have been vacated by persons convalescent from 
any contagious disease. Notification should be sent to the Chief 
Inspector of Contagious Diseases, Sixth Avenue and Fifty-fifth 
Street, Telephone Call, No. 1204 Columbus. 

It is important to remember that an abundance of fresh air, 
sunlight and absolute cleanliness not only helps protect the attend- 
ants from infection, but also aids in the recovery of the sick. Sun- 
light is one of the most effective disinfectants known, killing all 
germs directly exposed to it within a few hours. 



METHODS OF DISINFECTION. 295 



METHODS OF CLEANLINESS AND DISINFECTION TO PRE- 
SENT THE OCCURRENCE OF ILLNESS. 

1. Water-closet Bowls and all Receptacles for Human excrement 
should be kept perfectly clean by frequent flushing with a large 
quantity of water, and as often as necessary disinfected with the 
Carbolic or Chlorinated Lime Solutions. The woodwork around 
and beneath them should be frequently scrubbed with the hot 
Soap-suds Solution. 

2. Sinks and the Woodwork around and the floor beneath them 
should be frequently and thoroughly scrubbed with the hot Soap- 
suds Solution. 

3. School Sinks.— -School sinks should be thoroughly flushed with 
a large quantity of water at least twice daily, and should be 
carefully cleaned twice a week or oftener by scrubbing. Several 
quarts of the Carbolic or Chlorinated Lime Solutions should be 
frequently thrown in the sink after it has been flushed. 

4. Cesspools and Privy Vaults. — An abundance of Milk of Lime, 
Dry Chloride of Lime or Chlorinated Lime Solution (at least 
four times the amount of the excreta to be disinfected), should 
be thrown into these daily, and their contents should be frequently 
removed. 

5. Cellars and Rooms in Cellars are to be frequently white- 
washed, and, if necessary, the floors sprinkled with fresh, dry 
Chloride of Lime. Areas and Paved Yards should be cleaned, 
scrubbed, and, if necessary, washed with the Bichloride Solution. 
Street Gutters and Drains should be cleaned, and when necessary 
sprinkled with Chloride of Lime or washed with Milk of Lime. 

6. Air Shafts. — Air shafts should be first cleaned thoroughly, 
and then whitewashed. To prevent tenants throwing garbage 
down air shafts, it is advisable to put wire netting outside of 
windows opening on shafts. Concrete or asphalt bottoms of shafts 
should be cleaned and washed with the Bichloride Solution, or 
sprinkled with Chloride of Lime. 

7. Hydrant Sinks, Garbage Receptacles, and Garbage and Oyster- 
shells Shutes and Receptacles should be cleaned daily, and 
sprinkled with dry Chloride of Lime. 

8. Refrigerators and the Surfaces around and beneath them, 
Dumb-waiters, etc., may be cleaned by scrubbing them with the 
hot Soap-suds Solution. 



296 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION 

9. Traps. — All traps should be flushed daily with an abundance 
of water. If at any time they become foul, they may be cleaned 
by pouring considerable quantities of the hot Strong Soda Solu- 
tion into them, followed by the Carbolic Solution. 

10. Urinals and the Floors around and underneath them should 
be cleaned twice daily with the hot Soap-suds Solution, and in 
addition to this, if offensive, they may be disinfected with the 
Carbolic Solution. 

11. Stable Floors and Manure Vaults. — Stable floors should be 
kept clean and occasionally washed with the hot Soap-suds, or 
the hot Strong Soda Solution. Powdered fresh Chloride of Lime 
may be used in manure vaults. 

12. Vacant Rooms should be frequently aired. 

13. The Woodwork in School-houses should be scrubbed weekly 
with hot Soap-suds. This refers to floors, doors, door-handles, and 
all woodwork touched by the scholars' hands. 

14. Spittoons in all Public Places, should be emptied daily and 
washed with the hot Weak Soda or Soap-suds Solution, after 
which a small quantity of the Carbolic Solution or Milk of Lime 
should be put in the vessel to receive the expectoration. 

15. Elevated and Surface Cars, Ferry-boats and Public Convey- 
ances. — The floors, door-handles, railings and all parts touched by 
the hands of passengers should be washed frequently with the 
hot Weak Soda or Soap-suds Solution. Slat-mats from cars, etc., 
should be cleaned by scrubbing with a stiff brush in the hot Soap- 
suds Solution. 

Use of Bromine Solution as a Deodorant. 

Slaughter-houses, Butchers' Ice-boxes and Wagons, Trenches, 
Excavations, Stable Floors, Manure Vaults, Dead Animals, Offal, 
Offal Docks, etc., may be deodorized by a weak Solution of Bro- 
mine which is a valuable agent for this purpose. The Bromine 
Solution, however, is only temporary in its action, and must be 
used repeatedly. It should be applied by sprinkling. Although 
somewhat corrosive in its action on metals, it is otherwise harm- 
less. 

The Solution of Bromine must be prepared with great care, as 
the pure bromine from which it is made is dangerous. It is very 
caustic when brought in contact with the skin; it is volatile and 
its fumes are extremely irritating if inhaled. In preparing this 



METHODS OF DISINFECTION. 297 

solution in large quantities, a pound bottle of bromine should be 
dropped into a barrel containing forty or fifty gallons of water, 
and then broken under water with an iron bar. The solution is 
completed by thoroughly stirring. To prepare a smaller quan- 
tity an ounce bottle of bromine may be dropped into a pail con- 
taining three or four gallons of water, and broken in the same 
way and with the same care. 

Conclusion. 

The general principles of disinfection outlined in this circular 
may be applied for the disinfection of all articles not specifically 
treated of, and which are similar in character to those considered. 



MILK INSPECTION. 

EXTRACT FROM A PAPER BY DR. HERMAN BETZ, CHIEF INSPEC- 
TOR DIVISION OF FOOD AND OFFENSIVE TRADES INSPECTION 
OF THE DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, NEW YOKR. 

The milk-inspector is on duty, technically, all the time; he 
may be called upon at any hour, day or night, Sundays as well 
as on week-days, for it is obvious that a dishonestly inclined 
milk-dealer, who behaves himself during the week, should not 
be left under the impression that he can do as he pleases on Sun- 
day. 

The milk-inspector is obliged to spend from 9 a.m. to 4 p.m. 
in actual inspections, after which he writes out a daily report of 
every place visited by him during the day, giving the time by 
hour and minute, the name and address of the milk-dealer, the 
permit number under which the dealer does business, and the 
temperature and lactometer standing of the milk so examined. 

The report must be in the Chief Inspector's hands by 9 a.m. 
each day. On Monday morning a weekly report also is handed in 
giving the number of inspections made each day, as well as the 
total number for the week, his attendance at court, and arrests 
and fines also must be carefully recorded. 

The following instruments and utensils are supplied to the 
milk-inspector, which he carries about with him in a suitable 
satchel: 

A lactometer; a thermometer (dairy style); a cylinder of tin 
in which to float the lactometer; lead seals and wire for sealing 
sample-bottles of milk; one seal punch with two dies, one im- 
pressing the lead with " Health Department, Manhattan," the 
other with the inspector's letter which has been given him for 
his identification as A, B, C, or D, etc.; a writing diamond, to 
mark sample-bottles; six-ounce bottles with two holes in neck 
opposite each other, through which the wire is passed holding the 

298 



MILK INSPECTION. 299 

cork immovable, unless the seal and wire are disturbed, for deal- 
er's sample; four-ounce bottles for samples of milk for analysis 
at laboratory; one box of labels, gummed on back, for marking 
above sample with inspection number, sample number and lacto- 
meter standing at 60° F.; a book of 50 labels to mark dealer's 
sample, as also a stub corresponding with same, which is after- 
ward attached to the analysis report; a book in which is reported 
the year, month, day, hour and minute when inspection is made, 
the number of inspection, the name and address of the dealer, 
number of years in business, number of quarts sold per day, num- 
ber of permit under which business is done, name and address of 
the wholesale milk-dealer from whom he receives his supply, the 
gross and net lactometer standing and the temperature of the 
milk examined, also physical properties, odor, taste and appear- 
ance, the name of person present when examination is made, 
whether proprietor of store or representative, and, lastly, the 
mark which is found on top of cover of milk-can. 

The mode of inspection is' as follows: When an inspector en- 
ters a place where milk is sold he announces this fact to the 
proprietor of the place, or his representative. After he has sat- 
isfied himself that the milk is properly cooled and utensils for 
measuring are clean, he stirs the milk thoroughly, fills a tin 
cylinder within two inches of the rim, leaving room for displace- 
ment by lactometer; the lactometer is then carefully lowered into 
the milk, care being taken that the stem is dry. While the lac- 
tometer is allowed to come to rest, the thermometer is used to 
carefully note the temperature, this and the lactometer's read- 
ing are carefully entered in the inspection-book and for every 
three degrees of temperature below 60° F. one degree is deducted 
on the lactometer, or added if the temperature is above 60° F. 
Should the milk present a good appearance and stand somewhere 
between 108 and 112° on the lactometer at 60° F., the milk-in- 
spector will pronounce the milk good, but if the milk should stand 
below 108 or above 112° net on the lactometer, and not be of good 
physical appearance, he will consider the milk suspicious and pro- 
ceed to take a sample from same. 

A six-ounce bottle is filled up within a short space below 
the neck to allow sufficient room for expansion and the cork 
forced in well below the two perforations mentioned above. A 
wire is then passed through the orifice in the bottle, forced 



300 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION 

through the cork and out through the opposite perforation in the 
bottle, and then wound twice around the neck of the bottle and 
over the groove in the lead-seal, which is then forced down over 
the wire by the punch until it presents a quite flat appearance 
with the imprint on both sides, as described above, and from 
which the wire cannot be removed without destroying the seal and 
imprint. The sample is then labelled with the part of page which 
corresponds with the stub described, and which is gummed on the 
reverse side. Both stub and label are counterparts of each other 
bearing number of inspection, date, name and address of dealer, 
reason for taking sample, inspector's name and the number of 
sample. This bottle is then sealed and labelled as described above, 
and handed to the dealer or his representative, to be held by him, 
or to be given to a chemist for analysis if he so chooses. This 
is now done but seldom, dealers, both wholesale and retail, are 
so convinced of the absolute correctness with which analyses are 
made at the Department laboratory, that they usually instruct 
their lawyers to concede the analysis. The four-ounce square 
bottle is now filled with some of the same milk, and to this is 
attached a square stick-label bearing inspection and sample num- 
ber, as well as inspector's letter described before. The inspector 
now proceeds to the laboratory of the Department. When he 
arrives there he will hand the sample bottle to the chemist or as- 
sistant chemist in charge, who will sign a receipt for same on a 
ticket made out by the milk-inspector, on which are again given 
the milk-dealer's permit number, year, month, day, hour and 
minute of inspection, but the space for the milk-dealer's name 
and address is left blank for the time being; the ticket also gives 
the wholesale dealer's name and address from whom the retailer 
receives his supply, and the number of specimens of milk examined, 
their standing both by lactometer, thermometer, and net, also 
physical appearance. As this ticket is used by the inspector 
on the stand in trials to refresh his memory, it is made out with 
great care, and gives in addition to the above facts the recorded 
numbers of the instruments used, for it has happened in some 
important trials that the correctness of the instruments has been 
questioned. For this reason, as soon as a lot of lactometers or 
thermometers is received from the manufacturer, they are care- 
fully tested in our laboratory; if they come up to the standard 
they are accepted, numbered, and the record of the same is kept 



IfILK INSPECTION. 301 

at the Chief Inspector's office; if they are found to vary percep- 
tibly they are rejected. The same ticket also records the fact 
whether the can from which the sample has been taken was wired, 
the amount of milk the can contained, the fact that the milk 
had been stirred by the proprietor or his representative, the marks 
found on shoulder and cover of can, the location of the can in the 
store or place in which the milk was sold; whether the can con- 
tained a dipper, whether this inspection was made on the regular 
routine inspection or upon a complaint from a citizen, the total 
number of cans examined at that particular inspection, the name 
of the witness present at the time of inspection, and also a space 
in which to record the date on which the warrant was obtained. 
In case of prosecution the number of the City Magistrate's Court, 
the date, when, and the amount of bail obtained, and, finally, the 
Court in which the case was tried and the amount of fine paid or 
the disposition of the case, whether dismissed altogether or sen- 
tence suspended. All this is recorded on the front of the ticket; 
on the reverse side is given; first, the receipt of the chemist for 
the sample, then the analysis as follows: 

Water, per cent.; total solids, per cent.; fat, per cent.; solids 
not fat, per cent.; per cent, low in solids; per cent, low in fat; 
borax, present or absent; salicylic acid, present or absent; formal- 
dehyde, present or absent; reaction, acid or alkaline. 

The name of the assistant chemist who has performed the an- 
alysis is also given and is countersigned by the chemist. This 
completes the ticket, as far as the inspector can complete it, at 
that particular stage. The ticket, with the stub, is then handed 
to the clerk in charge of milk analyses in the Chief Inspector's 
office, which ends the milk-inspector's duty for the present as far 
as this particular sample is concerned. The clerk in charge of 
milk analyses, just mentioned, enters up all the facts given in a 
book in which spaces are provided for all the facts given above; 
the ticket is then placed in an envelope with others which may 
come in on the same day, giving the exact time when received 
from the inspectors, when forwarded to the laboratory and when 
received back again. After forty-eight hours the analysis is fin- 
ished, and the chemist will then fill up the space provided for 
percentages of water, total solids, fat, etc., and whether the milk 
has been found unadulterated or short in total solids or fat, giving 
the exact amount. The ticket is then immediately returned by 



302 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

the chemist to the clerk in charge of milk analysis, who enters 
up all the various facts found by the chemist and then fills in the 
name and address of dealer from the stub. The ticket is now 
ready for the Chief Inspector, who will determine by the percentage 
of fat or total solids shortage whether an arrest is to be made 
or not. The rule followed at present is that the dealer is to have 
the benefit of the doubt up to four per cent, of solids and nine 
per cent, of fat, but if the shortage is five per cent, or over in 
total solids, or a shortage of ten per cent, or over of fat, prose- 
cution is at once to be started; such tickets are, therefore, signed 
by the Chief Inspector and stamped " Arrest " or " Do not arrest," 
and after the ticket has been countersigned by the Sanitary Su- 
perintendent the clerk in charge of milk analyses will notify the 
milk-inspector that a ticket is awaiting him at the office for ar- 
rest. The milk-inspector upon receipt of the ticket prepares an 
affidavit of the facts in the case, and asks for a warrant for the 
milk-dealer's arrest in the City Magistrate's Court in whose dis- 
trict the violation has taken place. This warrant is usually 
granted, and a day of hearing is set; the warrant is served by a 
court officer in as inoffensive a manner as possible; that is, by 
simply notifying the dealer that his presence Is required in the 
court to which the officer is attached, for violation of the Sanitary 
Code by selling adulterated milk, and that probably it would be 
best for the dealer to bring with him a bondsman. At the day 
and hour set for the hearing the milk-inspector states his case and 
requests that the defendant be held under bond for trial in Special 
Sessions. The City Magistrate usually names a bail amount of 
$100, which the milk-dealer furnishes through a friend, or in many 
cases the wholesale dealer who has furnished the milk furnishes 
the bail. If the defendant is represented by counsel, the counsel 
frequently requests a hearing, but the outcome is usually the 
same. After a lapse of but a short time the case is set down for 
trial at Special Sessions, where the judges without exception 
have taken great interest in these milk cases; some of them even 
have taken the trouble to inform themselves of the various stages 
of analysis, being present during an actual analysis at the lab- 
oratory. They are well posted in relation to the provisions of the 
Sanitary Code and the agricultural laws of this State relating to 
milk and dairy matters, total solids, fat, solids not fat, the name 
of antiseptics and like terms and their meanings, which are usually 



MILK INSPECTION. 303 

so puzzling to outsiders, and even lawyers who try these cases 
understand them as well as any chemist. It is directly due to 
this intimate knowledge of terms, facts and matters connected 
with the scientific part of milk analysis, and the recognition of 
the earnest efforts of the Health Department to improve the milk 
supply of the City of New York, that it has been able to carry 
on milk-inspection with satisfactory results; for what would all 
this work amount to did not the courts so ably and conscientiously 
carry out their part. 

Since 1896 the Department of Health has required every dealer 
in milk to take out a permit, in order to better regulate the care 
of milk and enforce the Sanitary Code. 



VI. 

INSTRUCTIONS FOR MEDICAL SCHOOL INSPECTORS, 
OF THE HEALTH DEPARTMENT OF NEW YORK. 

Inspectors are required to report at the schools to which they 
have been assigned from 8.50 to 9.30 a.m. every day that school 
sessions are held. 

They are to carefully examine each child that has been isolated 
by the teachers in charge of the scholars, and cause to be ex- 
cluded from school each one affected with or showing symptoms 
of any contagious or infectious disease, more especially the fol- 
lowing : Measles, diphtheria, scarlet fever, croup, whooping cough, 
mumps, contagious eye diseases, parasitic diseases of the head or 
body, or chicken-pox. They shall furnish each pupil that is to 
be excluded with a printed card, upon which they shall note the 
date, name and location of the school; name, age and address of 
the child, and the reason for its exclusion. -These cards, signed 
by the Medical School Inspectors, are to be taken home by the 
excluded pupils. Each day, before leaving a school, each Inspector 
is required to fill out a printed daily report blank, giving the 
date and time of visit; the name, location, district and card num- 
bers of the school; the number of children examined (male, female 
and total), the full name, age and address of each one excluded, 
with the diagnosis of each excluded case. Note is also to be 
made on the daily report of any culture that has been taken, 
giving the clinical diagnosis and stating whether the pupil was 
excluded or not. On the last school day of each week the printed 
summary blank on the back of the daily report blank used that 
day is to be properly filled out for each school day of that week. 
Each day, as soon as possible after leaving the last school to be 
visited, Inspectors are required to mail a separate daily report 
(properly folded and "backed") for each school visited, to the 
Chief Inspector at the Central Office, where a daily summary is 
made of the work performed in all of the schools visited. 

All children excluded from school for measles or scarlet fever are 

304 



MEDICAL SCHOOL INSPECTORS. 305 

visited at their homes within twenty-four hours by one of the 
Diagnosticians of the Board, and such cases are not tabulated as 
true ones unless he confirms the diagnosis, when a Department 
postal card is sent to the school, excluding the child until after its 
complete recovery, and when the necessary disinfection and fumi- 
gation of the rooms where it lives have been attended to, a cer- 
tificate allowing it to return to school is issued. 

Pupils excluded for chicken-pox are visited at their homes by 
the Medical Inspectors of the Division of Contagious Diseases 
having charge of the districts in which the children live; when 
they confirm the diagnosis, the cases are recorded as true ones, 
and the schools notified by Department postal cards. 

In cases of suspicious diphtheria, when there is well-marked 
clinical evidence in the throat at the time of the examination, the 
child is to be excluded after a culture has been taken; when the 
clinical evidence is not well marked, a culture is to be taken, but 
the child is not to be excluded until a report is received by the 
Medical School Inspector from the Division of Bacteriology, stating 
that an examination of the culture shows the presence of the Klebs- 
Loeffler bacilli. 

In each case, where an examination of a culture taken by a 
Medical School Inspector shows the presence of the Klebs-Loeffier 
bacilli, a notice to that effect is promptly mailed to the maker 
of the culture, and also to the Medical Inspector of the Division 
of Contagious Diseases in whose district the child resides, who then 
takes charge of the case as far as the proper isolation is con- 
cerned, taking subsequent necessary cultures, ordering disinfection 
and fumigation when the Klebs-Loeffler bacilli have disappeared 
from the throat, and issuing certificates for the child's return to 
school. 

The District Medical Inspectors have the same surveillance over 
each case of measles or scarlet fever where the diagnosis made by 
the School Inspector has been confirmed by a Diagnostician. When 
the result of an examination of a culture made by a School In- 
spector is negative, a report to that effect is forwarded to the Chief 
Inspector, but not to the maker of the culture. 

When the examination of a culture made by a School Inspector 
does not admit of an exact bacteriological diagnosis and a prompt 
confirmatory culture is requested, such request will be mailed to 
the maker of the culture, and also to the District Medical In- 



306 HANDBOOK ON SANITATION. 

spector, in order that a confirmatory culture may be taken — by 
the former, if the child is at school, or by the latter, if the child 
should be at home. All cultures made by the School Inspectors, 
accompanied by the " culture blanks," properly filled out and 
signed, should be promptly forwarded to the nearest culture sta- 
tion. 

Children excluded on account of whooping cough, mumps, con- 
tagious eye diseases, parasitic diseases, etc., should be told to 
return when cured, and should be again examined before returning 
to their class-rooms; if not entirely well they should be again ex- 
cluded. 

The Inspectors shall ascertain from the principals and teachers 
of the schools the names and addresses of all children having 
contagious diseases in their families, where notification has not 
been sent to the schools by the Board of Health, and such lists 
shall be forwarded with the daily reports. Inspectors shall keep 
a daily record in a blank book, furnished for such purposes, of the 
number of children examined (male, female, and total), the full 
names, ages, residences and causes for exclusion of those excluded 
from school, and a list of cultures taken and forwarded. 

If, by reason of illness or other cause, an ^Inspector is unable 
to report at a school, arrangements must be made with an Inspec- 
tor of another school to act as a substitute, and the Chief In- 
spector informed of the facts without unnecessary delay. 

If, in the opinion of an Inspector, immediate action should be 
taken by the Board of Health in any case, he should immediately 
communicate by telephone with the Chief Inspector. 

Medical School Inspectors shall report at the Central Office 
once during each month, the time to be designated by the Chief 
Inspector. Exclusion cards for pupils, daily report blanks, ad- 
dressed envelopes, blank books for recording the work performed, 
wooden tongue-depressors, culture outfits, and lists of culture 
stations, will be furnished at the office of the Chief Inspector. 

The daily duties of Medical School Inspectors cease when they 
have mailed their reports, after leaving their schools. They are 
not, under any circumstances, to visit children at their homes, to 
prescribe for them, or suggest treatment at the schools. The treat- 
ment must be received from the family physicians, in £he dis- 
pensaries, or in the hospitals. 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

Abbot, S. W 222 

Adulteration of food 158 

of milk 104 

Air, composition of 13 

diseases due to 17 

essential to health 115 

ground 3 

hot, furnace 37 

humidity, temperature, and pressure 14 

influence on health 17 

impurities 15 

quantity required 19 

sewer 63 

Anthracite coal 146 

Anderson, Dr 113 

Aqueducts, Roman 44 

Artesian wells 46 

Bacteria 5, 8, 9, 15 

Bakeries, 148 

drainage and plumbing of 148 

hours of labor in 148 

New York Labor Law on 149 

rooms in 149 

Pennsylvania laws on 149 

water-closets in 149 

Banner, drain grenade 109 

Basements 126 

Bath-tubs 91 

307 



308 INDEX. 

PAGE 

Betz, Dr. M., on horse-meat 162 

on milk inspection 298 

Billings, J. S 219 

Boilers, hot-water system 39 

kitchen '. . 92 

Boston Board of Health rules on lodging-houses 136 

number of inspectors 198 

Bramley, Harry viii, 80 

Calculation of areas and cubic space 215 

Capillary attraction 77 

Cellars, in bakeries 148 

causes of water in 128 

cementing 10 

construction 10 

concrete 129 

conditions for occupying 128 

definition 134 

in dwellings 128 

in tenements 129 

Cigar-making in tenement-houses 138 

Cisterns of water-closets 96 

Cincinnati Engineer on smoke prevention 147 

Civil-service examinations 200 

rules and regulations 201 

Chapin, Dr. Ch. V vii, 51, 136, 149, 171, 198 

Chimneys, defects in 32 

smoky 33 

Combustion ■ 15, 17 

Cowl ventilators 29 

Cretinism 9 

Cremation 51 

Cubic space calculations : . 215 

Defects in plumbing 104 

Definitions, basement ^ 128 

cellar 128 

factory 141 

house-drain 67 

house-sewer 59 

infectious diseases , 169 



INDEX. 309 

PAGE 

Definitions, lodging-houses 136 

rain-leader 68 

sewage 5 

sewer 59 

soil 1 

soil-pipe 67 

trap 67 

tenement-house 117 

vent-pipe 67 

waste-pipe 67 

workshop 174 

Deodorant 174 

Disinfection 171, 174, 288 

Disposal of sewage 49 

Dwellings 134 

cellars in 134 

plumbing in 135 

Ellison's air bricks 25 

Extension of pipes 84 

Farr, Dr 113 

Factory Inspection 148 

Factories 141 

definition 141 

rooms in 143 

water-closets in 143 

ventilation 144 

Filtration, of water 48 

Food adulteration 158 

laws 159 

Formaldehyde as a disinfectant 175 

Fresh-air inlet 87 

Galton's grate 36 

Garbage 49 

Gerhardt vi, 60 

Grates 35 

Ground-air 3 

-moisture 4 

-water 2 

-temperature 4 



310 INDEX: 

PAGE 

Heat, conductive ; 32 

convective 32 

radiant 32 

Hinke's Bird window 224 

Hopper closets 95 

yard 100 

Horses, amount of air required 151 

cubic space required for 151 

House construction 10 

House-drain 79 

brick , 126 

connections 82 

definition 67 

fall 82 

materials 82 

position . . . . 82 

size 79 

House-sewer 59 

Hudson's peppermint cartridge 110 

Infectious diseases 169 

to be reported r 170 

sanitary code 171 

Interment of bodies 6 

Keen's ventilator 25 

Kemp's tester 109 

Lodging-houses 134 

definition 136 

dimensions 137 

Boston rules 137 

New York rules 137 

ventilation 137 

Manure 152 

removal in Boston 152 

in Jersey City 152 

in New York 152 

Marsden, H. Sydney, on meat 160 

Materials of combustion 32 

Meat, characteristics of good 160 

horse- 162 

Mercantile establishments 145 



INDEX. 3 1 1 

PAGE 

Milk 164 

Milk inspection 298 

Momentum, cause of loss of seal in traps 76 

McKinnell's ventilator 27 

Notter and Firth 113 

New York Labor law, in bakeries 148 

in factories 144 

in sweat-shops 139 

New York Sanitary Code, see Sanitary Code. 
New York Tenement-houses, see Tenement-houses. 

New York, number of inspectors 199 

Offensive trades 156 

Offensive processes 157 

Overcrowding 130 

Overflows 92 

Pail system 55 

Pan closets 93, 128, 134 

Peppermint test . 108 

Philadelphia hoppers 128 

Plunger closets 95 

Plumbing 66 

in bakeries Ill 

defects 106 

Durham system 68 

in dwellings 134 

in factories 143 

materials, uses in . , 68 

pipes 79 

general principles 66 

requisites and purposes 66 

rules and regulations in New York 271 

Plumbing in stables 151 

tenement-house 126 

tests 106 

Pneumatic system 55 

Precipitation 52 

Privy vault 55 

Proper construction of a house 10 

Public HeaWi Record 162, 185 

Rain-leader 88 



312 USD EX. 

PAGE 

Receptacles GO 

Refrigerators 91 

Richardson, B. W Ill 

Safes 92 

Sanitation, study of 11 

as a profession 178 

Sanitary Inspection, art of 187 

Inspectors, compensation for 180 

education of 181 

examinations 200 

extracts from the New York charter 194 

number of, in various cities 198, 199 

qualifications for 186 

reporting days 194 

rules and regulations for 193 

organization 180, 184 

pensions for 195 

selection 180 

working hours 193 

Sanitary law ^ 219 

Sanitary organization in the United States 222 

Sanitary profession 180 

Sanitary code on infectious diseases 171 

on lodging-houses 130 

on meat and foods 1G1 

on slaughter-houses 154 

on stables 152 

Sanitary Record, London 1 GO 

School inspection 17G 

School sink.. 98 

Sewage 50 

cremation 52 

definition 50 

discharge into waters 51 

filtration 51 

pollution of soil 6 

of air 17 

of water 42 

precipitation 52 

disposal, by separate system §7 



1XBEX. 313 

PAGE 

Sewage disposal, combined system 57 

dry methods of 55 

immediate 54 

modes of 51 

ultimate 51 

in United States 54 

water-carriage method 51 

Sewer 59 

air and gas 63 

brick 60 

connections with house-sewer 84 

connections 62 

construction 61 

definition 50 

fall 61 

flow 61 

flushing " 65 

joints 61 

materials used 59 

size of 62 

ventilation 64 

Sinks 90 

Sites 9 

in tenements 121 

Sherringham valve 25, 26 

Slaughter- .houses 151 

Smoke nuisance 146 

Smoke test 107 

Smoky chimneys, causes of 33 

Soil and sites 1 

bacteria in 5 

contamination of 6 

composition 1 

definition 1 

diseases due to 9 

influence on health 7 

Spigot end of pipe 69 

Stables, rules, etc., in Boston 151 

in Chicago 151 

Drainage and plumbing of 151 



314 INDEX. 

PAGE 

Stables, New York rules, etc 151 

ventilation of 152 

Steam heating . 39 

Stoves 35 

Street paving 10 

Subsoil drainage 10 

Sullivan, J 99, 101, 103 

Sykes, Dr 114 

Syphonage 77 

Sweat-shops 138, 139 

Tenement-houses, cellars 128 

classes 117 

conditions 131 

commission 114, 119, 118, 120 

definition 117 

department, organization of 260 

halls 132 

house-drain 126 

inspection 189 

inspectors 189 

law 7 225 

lighting 123 

origin 115 

overcrowding 130 

plumbing 126 

protection against fire 122 

• problem Ill 

percentage of lot occupied 122 

report 114 

roofs 132 

rooms 150 

solution 116 

traps 127 

water-closets in 127 

water-closet apartments 132 

water-supply of , 125 

Temperature, ground 4, 14 

Tests, plumbing 106 

minor . . . 107 

peppermint 108 



INDEX. 315 

PAGE 

Tests, pressure 107 

scent 108 

smoke 107 

Testers, Banner's 109 

Hudson's 109 

Kemp's 109 

Tide-valves 62 

Tobin's tube 26 

Tracy, Dr. R. S viii, 36, 156 

Trades 16, 17 

Offensive 156 

Traps 72 

Antill's 73 

Buchan's 73 

Cottam's 73 

Croydon 73 

definition of s 67 

Dodd's 73 

Hellyer 73 

non-syphoning 71 

main 84 

Renk's 73 

seal 72 

types of 73 

Tree-planting 10 

Ultimate disposal of sewage 51 

Urinals 92 

Valve closets 95 

Vent-pipes 88 

Ventilation s >...., 19 

artificial 29 

of bakeries 149 

definition of 19 

of factories 143 

forces of 22 

of lodging-houses 136 

methods of 23 

natural 23 

of plumbing system 67 

of tenement-houses 123 



316 INDEX. 

PAGE 

Ventilation of sewers 64 

of slaughter-houses 154 

of soil- and drain-pipes 85 

of stables 151 

of sweat-shops 139 

Ventilators, cowl '. 29 

Hinkes, Bird's 24 

Dr. Keen's , 25 

McKinnell's 27 

Vitrified pipes . 59 

Waring, Colonel 65 

Warming, hot water 33 

methods of 32 

of tenements . 122 

Water 40 

in cellars, causes of 129 

collection 47 

composition 40 

diseases due to impure 42 

distribution ^ 47 

nitration 48 

ground .> 3 

impurities ■ 41 

influence of, on health 42 

pollution , 42 

pressure test 107 

purification 47 

quality of 40 

rain 41 

source of 47 

spring 129 

storage 47 

subsurface 46 

surface 45 

Water-supply 44 

cisterns 9fi 

in tenements 125 

Water of wells 47 

Water-closets 93 

apartments . 132 



HSDEX. 317 

PAGE 

Water-closets, in bakeries 149 

cistern , 96 

defects 212 

in dwellings 135 

in factories 143 

hopper 90 

in .lodging-houses 137 

pan 93 

plunger 95 

school sink 9S 

in tenement-houses 127 

valve £5 

wash-out 96 

wash-down 96 

yard-hopper 100 

Wash-basins 91 

Wash-tubs : 91 

Wastes 92 

Wells . . 46 

Workshops 141 

Wrought iron 68 

Yards 131 

drains 103 



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Allen's Tables for Iron Analysis 8vo, 3 00 

Austen's Notes for Chemical Students 12mo, 1 50 

Bolton's Student's Guide in Quantitative Analysis 8vo, 1 50 

Classen's Analysis by Electrolysis. (HerrickandBoUwood.).8vo ; 3 00 

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Cohn's Indicators and Test-papers 12mo $3 00 

Crafts's Qualitative Analysis. (Schaeffer.) 12mo, 1 50 

Davenport's Statistical Methods with Special Reference to Bio- 
logical Variations 12mo, morocco, 1 25 

Drechsel's Chemical Reactions. (Merrill.) 12mo, 1 25 

Erdmann's Introduction to Chemical Preparations. (Dunlap.) 

12 mo, 1 25 

Fresenius's Quantitative Chemical Analysis. (Allen.) Svo, 6 00 

Qualitative " " ^Johnson.) Svo, 3 00 

(Wells.) Trans. 

16th German Edition Svo, 5 00 

Fuertes's Water and Public Health , , 12mo, 1 50 

Water Filtration Works 12mo, 2 50 

Gill's Gas and Fuel Analysis 12mo, 1 25 

Goodrich's Economic Disposal of Towns' Refuse Demy 8vo, 3 50 

Kammarsten's Physiological Chemistry. (Maudel.) Svo, 4 00 

Helm's Principles of Mathematical Chemistry. (Morgan). 12mo, 1 50 

Hopkins' Oil-Chemist's Hand-book Svo, 3 00 

Ladd's Quantitative Chemical Analysis 12mo, 1 00 

Landauer's Spectrum Analysis. (Tingle. ) Svo, 3 00 

Lob's Electrolysis and Electrosynthesis of Organic Compounds. 

(Lorenz.) 12mo, 1 00 

Mandel's Bio-chemical Laboratory 12mo, 1 50 

Mason's Water-supply 8vo, 5 00 

Examination of Water 12mo, 1 25 

Meyer's Radicles in Carbon Compounds. (Tingle.) 12mo, 1 00 

Mixter's Elementary Text-book of Chemistry 12mo, 1 50 

Morgan's The Theory of Solutions and its Results 12mo, 1 00 

" Elements of Physical Chemistiy 12mo, 2 00 

Nichols's Water-supply (Chemical and Sanitary) Svo, 2 50 

O'Brine's Laboratory Guide to Chemical Analysis Svo, 2 00 

Pinner's Organic Chemistry. (Austen.) 12mo, 1 50 

Poole's Calorific Power of Fuels . . .8vo, 3 00 

Richards's Cost of Living as Modified by Sanitary Science.. 12mo. 1 00 

" and Woodman's Air, Water, and Food Svo, 2 00 

Ricketts and Russell's Xotes on Inorganic Chemistry (Xon- 

metallic) Oblong Svo, morocco, 75 

Rideal's Sewage and the Bacterial Purification of Sewage.. 8vo, 3 50 

Ruddiman's Incompatibilities in Prescriptions 8vo, 2 00 

Schimpf's Volumetric Analysis 12mo, 2 50 

Spencer's Sugar Manufacturer's Handbook 16mo, morocco, 2 00 

" Handbook for Chemists of Beet Sugar Houses. 

16mo, morocco, 3 00 

Stockbridge's Rocks aud Soils. .Svo, 2 50 

* Tillman's Descriptive General Chemistry 8vo, 3 00 



Van Deventer's Physical Chemistry for Beginners. (Boltwood.) 

12mo, $1 50 

Wells's Inorganic Qualitative Analysis 12mo, 1 50 

" Laboratory Guide in Qualitative Chemical Analysis. 

8vo, 1 50 

Whipple's Microscopy of Drinking-water 8vo, 3 50 

Wiechmann's Chemical Lecture Notes 12mo, 3 00 

" Sugar Analysis Small 8vo, 2 50 

Wulling's Inorganic Phar. and Med. Chemistry 12m o, 2 00 

DRAWING. 

* Bartlett's Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 

Hill's Shades and Shadows and Perspective 8vo, 

MacCord's Descriptive Geometry ! 8vo, 

" Kinematics 8vo, 

" Mechanical Drawing 8vo, 

Mahan's Industrial Drawing. (Thompson.) 2 vols., 8vo, 

Reed's Topographical Drawing. (H. A.) 4to, 

Reid's A Course in Mechanical Drawing 8vo. 

" Mechanical Drawing and Elementary Machine Design. 

8vo, 

Smith's Topographical Drawing. (Macmillan.) ,. .8vo, 

Warren's Descriptive Geometry r 2 vols., 8vo, 

" Drafting Instruments. 12mo, 

" Free-hand Drawing 12mo, 

" Linear Perspective 12mo, 

" Machine Construction 2 vols. , 8vo, 

" Plane Problems 12mo, 

" Primary Geometry 12mo, 

" Problems and Theorems 8vo, 

" Projection Drawing 12mo, 

" Shades and Shadows , .8vo, 

" Stereotomy— Stone-cutting 8vo, 

Whelpley's Letter Engraving 12mo, 

Wilson's Free-hand Perspective 8vo, 

ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM, AND PHYSICS. 

Anthony and Brackett's Text-book of Physics. (Magie.) Small 

8vo, 3 00 

Anthony's Theory of Electrical Measurements .12mo, 1 00 

Barker's Deep-sea Soundings 8vo, 2 00 

Benjamin's Voltaic Cell.. 8vo, 3 00 

History of Electricity 8vo, 3 00 

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75 


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2 50 



Classen's Analj'sis by Electrolysis. (Henick and Boltwood.) 8vo, $3 00 
Crehoreand Squier's Experiments with a iSew Polarizing Photo- 
Chronograph 8vo, 3 00 

Dawson's Electric Railwa}'s and Tramways. Small, 4to, half 

morocco, 12 50 
*" Engineering '' and Electric Traction Pocket-book. 16mo, 

morocco, 5 00 
* Dredge's Electric Illuminatious. . . .2 vols., 4to, half morocco, 25 00 

Vol. II 4to, 7 50 

Gilbert's De magnete. (Mottelay.) 8vo, 2 50 

Holman's Precision of Measurements 8vo, 2 00 

" Telescope-mirror-scale Method Large 8vo, 75 

Le Chatelier's High Temperatures. (Burgess) 12mo, 3 00 

Lob's Electrolysis and Electrosynthesis of Organic Compounds. 

(Lorenz.) 12mo, 1 00 

Lyons's Electromagnetic Phenomena and the Deviations of the 

Compass 8vo, 

*Michie's Wave Motion Relating to Sound and Light 8vo, 

Morgan's The Theory of Solutions and its Results 12mo, 

Maudet's Electric Batteries (Fishback.) 12mo, 

*Parshall & Hobait Electric Generators. Small 4to, half mor., 

Pratt and Alden's Street-railway Road-beds 8vo, 

Reagan's Steam and Electric Locomotives 12mo, 

Thurston's Stationary Steam Engines for Electric Lighting Pur- 
poses 8vo, 

*Tillman's Heat 8vo, 

Tory & Pitcher's Laboratory Physics Small 8vo, 



ENGINEERING. 

Civil — Mechanical — Sanitary, Etc. 

(See also Bridges, p. 4 ; Hydraulics, p. 9 ; Materials of En- 
gineering, p. 11 ; Mechanics and Machinery, p. 12 ; Steam 
Engines and Boilers, p. 14.) 

Baker's Masonry Construction «.«•••»..■ 8vo, 5 00 

" Surveying Instruments 12mo, 3 00 

Black's U. S. Public Works Oblong 4to, 5 00 

Brooks's Street-railway Location 16mo, morocco, 1 50 

Butts's Civil Engineers' Field Book 16mo, morocco, 2 50 

Byrne's Highwa}- Construction 8vo, 5 00 

" Inspection of Materials and Workmanship 16mo, 3 00 

Carpenter's Experimental Engineering 8vo, 6 00 

Church's Mechanics of Engineering — Solids and Fluids 8vo, 6 00 

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Church's Notes and Examples in Mechanics 8vo, $2 00 

Crandall's Earthwork Tables .8vo, 1 50 

The Transition Curve ,16mo, morocco, 1 50 

Davis's Elevation and Stadia Tables Small 8vo, 1 00 

Dredge's Penn. Railroad Construction, etc. Large 4to, 

half morocco, $10; paper, 5 00 

* Drinker's Tunnelling 4to, half morocco, 25 00 

Eissler's Explosives — Nitroglycerine and Dynamite 8vo, 4 00 

Frizell's Water Power 8vo, 5 00 

Folwell's Sewerage 8vo, 3 00 

" Water-supply Engineering , , . .8vo, 4 00 

Fowler's Coffer-darn Process for Piers 8vo. 2 50 

Fuertes's Water Filtration Works 12mo, 2 50 

Gerhard's Sanitary House Inspection 12mo, 1 00 

Godwin's Railroad Engineer's Field-book 16mo, morocco, 2 50 

Goodrich's Economic Disposal of Towns' Refuse Demy 8vo, 3 50 

Gore's Elements of Geodesy 8vo, 2 50 

Hazlehurst's Towers and Tanks for Cities and Towns 8vo, 2 50 

Howard's Transition Curve Field-book 16mo, morocco, 1 50 

Howe's Retaining Walls (New Edition.) 12mo, 1 25 

Hudson's Excavation Tables. Vol. II 8vo, 1 00 

Hutton's Mechanical Engineering of Power Plants 8vo, 5 00 

" Heat and Heat Eugines 8vo, 5 00 

Johnson's Materials of Construction ^ 8vo, 6 00 

" Theory and Practice of Surveying Small 8vo, 4 00 

Kent's Mechanical Engineers Pocket-book 16mo, morocco, 5 00 

Kiersted's Sewage Disposal 12mo, 1 25 

Mahan's Civil Engineering. (Wood.) 8vo, 5 00 

Merriman and Brook's Handbook for Surveyors. . . .16mo, mor., 2 00 

Merriman's Precise Surveying and Geodesy 8vo, 2 50 

" Sanitary Engineering 8vo, 2 00 

Nagle's Manual for Railroad Engineers ... ,16mo, morocco, 3 00 

Ogdeu's Sewer Design 12mo, 2 00 

Patton's Civil Engineering 8vo, half morocco, 7 50 

" Foundations 8vo, 5 00 

Philbrick's Field Manual for Engineers 16mo, morocco, 3 00 

Pratt aud Alden's Street-railway Road-beds 8vo, 2 00 

Rockwell's Roads and Pavements in France 12mo, 1 25 

Schuyler's Reservoirs for Irrigation Large 8vo, 5 00 

Searles's Field Engineering 16mo, morocco, 3 00 

" Railroad Spiral. 16mo, morocco, 1 50 

Siebert and Biggin's Modern Stone Cutting and Masonry. . .8vo, 1 50 

Smart's Engineering Laboratory Practice 12ino, 2 50 

Smith's Wire Manufacture and Uses Small 4to, 3 00 

Spalding's Roads and Pavements 12mo, 2 00 

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Spalding's Hydraulic Cement l2mo, $2 00 

Taylor's Prisnioidal Formulas and Earthwork 8vo, 1 50 

Thurston's Materials of Construction „ 8vo, 5 00 

Tillson's Street Pavements and Paving Materials 8vo, 4 00 

* Trautwine's Civil Engineer's Pocket-book. . . .16mo, morocco, 5 00 

* " Cross-section Sheet, 25 

* " Excavations and Embankments 8vo, 2 00 

* " Laying Out Curves 12mo, morocco, 2 50 

Turneaure and Russell's Public Water-supplies Svo, 5 00 

Waddell's De Pontibus (A Pocket-book for Bridge Engineers). 

16mo, morocco, 3 00 

Wait's Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence 8vo, 6 00 

Sheep, 6 50 

" Law of Field Operation in Engineering, etc 8vo, 5 00 

Sheep, 5 50 

Warren's Stereotomy — Stone-cutting 8vo, 2 50 

Webb's Engineering Instruments. New Edition. 16mo, morocco, 1 25 

" Railroad Construction „8vo, 4 00 

Wegmann's Construction of Masonry Dams 4to, 5 00 

Wellington's Location of Railways Small Svo, 5 00 

Wheeler's Civil Engineering. . . .. Svo, 4 00 

Wilson's Topographical Surveying 8vo, 3 50 

Wolff's Windmill as a Prime Mover 8vo, 3 00 

HYDRAULICS. 

(See also Engineekixg, p. 7.) 
Bazin's Experiments upon the Contraction of the Liquid Vein. 

(Trautwine.) Svo, 

Bovey's Treatise on Hydraulics 8vo, 

Church's Mechanics of Engineering, Solids, and Fluids. . . .8vo, 

Coffin's Graphical Solution of Hydraulic Problems.... . . .12mo, 

Ferret's Treatise on the Winds, Cyclones, and Tornadoes. . .8vo, 

Fol well's Water Supply Engineering 8vo, 

Frizell's Water-power 8vo, 

Fuertes's Water and Public Health 12mo, 

Water Filtration Works 12mo. 

Ganguillet & Kutter's Flow of Water. (Hering & Trautwine.) 

8vo, 

Hazen's Filtration of Public Water Supply 8vo, 

Hazlehurst's Towers and Tanks for Cities and Towns 8vo, 

Herschel's 115 Experiments 8vo, 

Kiersted's Sewage Disposal 12mo, 

Mason's Water Supply 8vo, 

" Examination of Water 12mo, 

Merriman's Treatise on Hydraulics 8vo, 

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1 25 


4 00 



Nichols's Water Supply (Chemical and Sanitary) 8vo. $2 50 

Schuyler's Reservoirs for Irrigation Large 8vo, 5 00 

Turneaure and Russell's Public Water-supplies 8vo, 5 00 

Wegmann's Water Supply of the City of New York 4to, 10 00 

Weisbach's Hydraulics. (Du Bois.) « 8vo, 5 00 

Whipple's Microscopy of Drinking Water 8vo, 3 50 

Wilson's Irrigation Engineering 8vo, 4 00 

" Hydraulic and Placer Mining 12mo, 2 00 

Wolff's Windmill as a Prime Mover 8vo, 3 00 

Wood's Theory of Turbines 8vo, 2 50 

LAW. 

Davis's Elements of Law 8vo, 2 50 

* ' Treatise on Military Law 8vo, 7 00 

Sheep, 7 50 

Manual for Courts-martial 16mo, morocco, 1 50 

Wait's Engineering and Architectural Jurisprudence 8vo, 6 00 

Sheep, 6 50 

" Law of Contracts 8vo, 3 00 

" Law of Operations Preliminary to Construction in En- 
gineering and Architecture 8vo, 5 00 

Sheep, 5 50 

Winthrop's Abridgment of Military Law 12mo, 2 50 

MANUFACTURES. 

Allen's Tables for Iron Analysis 8vo, 

Beaumont's Woollen and Worsted Manufacture 12mo, 

Bolland's Encyclopaedia of Founding Terms 12mo, 

The Iron Founder 12mo, 

" " " " Supplement 12mo, 

Eissler's Explosives, Nitroglycerine and Dynamite 8vo, 

Ford's Boiler Making for Boiler Makers 18mo, 

Metcalfe's Cost of Manufactures 8vo, 

Metcalf's Steel — A Manual for Steel Users 12mo, 

*Reisig's Guide to Piece Dyeing 8vo, 

Spencer's Sugar Manufacturer's Handbook 16mo, morocco, 

" Handbook for Chemists of Beet Sugar Houses. 

16mo, morocco, 

Thurston's Manual of Steam Boilers 8vo, 

Walke's Lectures on Explosives 8vo, 

West's American Foundry Practice 12mo, 

" Moulder's Text-book 12mo, 

Wiechmann's Sugar Analysis Small 8vo, 

Woodbury's Fire Protection of Mills 8vo, 

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MATERIALS OF ENGINEERING. 

(See also Engineering, p. 7.) 

Baker's Masonry Construction 8vo, 

Bovey's Strength of Materials 8vo, 

Burr's Elasticity and Resistance of Materials 8vo, 

Byrne's Highway Construction 8vo, 

Church's Mechanics of Engineering — Solids and Fluids 8vo, 

Du Bois's Stresses in Framed Structures Small 4to, 

Johnson's Materials of Construction 8vo, 

Lanza's Applied Mechanics 3vo, 

Martens's Testing Materials. (Henning.) 2 vols., 8vo, 

Merrill's Stones for Building and Decoration 8vo, 

Merriman's Mechanics of Materials 8vo, 

11 Strength of Materials 12mo, 

Pattou's Treatise on Foundations 8vo, 

Rockwell's Roads and Pavements in France 12mo, 

Spalding's Roads and Pavements 12mo, 

Thurston's Materials of Construction s , 8vo, 

" Materials of Engineering 3 vols., 8vo, 

Vol. I., Non-metallic . * 8vo, 

Vol. II., Iron and Steel 8vo, 

Yol. III., Alloys, Brasses, and Bronzes 8vo, 

Wood's Resistance of Materials 8vo, 

MATHEMATICS. 

Baker's Elliptic Functions 8vo, 

•Bass's Differential Calculus 12mo, 

Briggs's Plane Analytical Geometry 12mo, 

Chapman's Theory of Equations 12mo, 

Compton's Logarithmic Computations 12mo, 

Davis's Introduction to the Logic of Algebra 8vo, 

Halsted's Elements of Geometry <..8vo, 

" Synthetic Geometry 8vo, 

Johnson's Curve Tracing 12mo, 

" Differential Equations — Ordinary and Partial. 

Small 8vo, 

" Integral Calculus 12mo, 

" " " Unabridged. Small 8vo. (Li press.) 

" Least Squares B 12mo, 

*Ludlow's Logarithmic and Other Tables. (Bass.) 8vo, 

* " Trigonometry with Tables. (Bass.) .8vo, 

*Mahan's Descriptive Geometry (Stone Cutting) Svo, 

Merriman and Woodward's Higher Mathematics 8vo, 

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6 00 


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1 50 


1 75 


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1 50 


1 50 


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3 00 


1 50 


5 00 



Merriinan's Method of Least Squares 8vo, $2 00 

Rice and Johnson's Differential and Integral Calculus, 

2 vols, in 1, small 8vo, 2 50 

" Differential Calculus Small 8vo, 3 00 

" Abridgment of Differential Calculus. 

Small 8vo, 1 50 

Totten's Metrology . 8vo, 2 50 

Warren's Descriptive Geometry 2 vols., 8vo, 3 50 

" Drafting Instruments 12mo, 1 25 

" Free-hand Drawing 12mo, 1 00 

u Linear Perspective 12mo, 100 

" Primary Geometry 12mo, 75 

M Plane Problems .12mo, 1 25 

" Problems and Theorems 8vo, 2 50 

" Projection Drawing 12mo, 1 50 

Wood's Co-ordiuate Geometry 8vo, 2 00 

" Trigonometry 12mo, 100 

Woolf's Descriptive Geometry Large 8vo, 3 00 

MECHANICS-MACHINERY. 

(See also Engineering, p. 7.) 

Baldwin's Steam Heating for Buildings 12mo, 2 50 

Barr's Kinematics of Machinery .-. 8vo, 2 50 

Benjamin's Wrinkles and Recipes 12mo, 2 00 

Chordal's Letters to Mechanics 12mo, 2 00 

Church's Mechanics of Engineering 8vo, 6 00 

" Notes and Examples in Mechanics 8vo, 2 00 

Crehore's Mechanics of the Girder 8vo, 5 00 

Cromwell's Belts and Pulleys 12mo, 1 50 

Toothed Gearing 12mo, 1 50 

Compton's First Lessons in Metal Working 12m o, 1 50 

Compton and De Groodt's Speed Lathe 12mo, 1 50 

Dana's Elementary Mechanics 12mo, 1 50 

Dingey's Machinery Pattern Making 12mo, 2 00 

* Dredge's Trans. Exhibits Building, World Exposition. 

Large 4to, half morocco, 5 00 

Du Bois's Mechanics. Vol. I., Kinematics 8vo, 3 50 

" " Vol. II., Statics 8vo, 4 00 

Vol. III., Kinetics 8vo, 3 50 

Fitzgerald's Boston Machinist 18mo, 1 00 

Flather's Dynamometers ,12mo, 2 00 

Rope Driving 12mo, 2 00 

Hall's Car Lubrication 12mo, 1 00 

Holly's Saw Filing 18mo, 75 

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* Johnson's Theoretical Mechanics. An Elementary Treatise. 

12mo, $3 00 

Jones's Machine Design. Part I., Kinematics 8vo, 1 50 

" ;' Part II., Strength and Proportion of 

Machine Parts 8vo, 3 00 

Lanza's Applied Mechanics 8vo, 7 50 

MacCord's Kinematics 8vo, 5 00 

Merriman's Mechanics of Materials 8vo, 4 00 

Metcalfe's Cost of Manufactures Svo, 5 00 

•Micbie's Analytical Mechanics 8vo, 4 00 

Rickards's Compressed Air 12rno, 1 50 

Robinson's Principles of Mechanism Svo, 3 00 

Smith's Press-working of Metals Svo, 3 00 

Thurston's Friction and Lost Work Svo, 3 00 

The Animal as a Machine 12mo, 1 00 

Warren's Machine Construction 2 vols., Svo, 7 50 

Weisbach's Hydraulics and Hydraulic Motors. (Du Bois.)..8vo, 5 00 
Mechanics of Engineering. Vol. III., Part L, 

Sec. I. (Klein.) 8vo, 5 00 

Weisbach's Mechanics of Engineering. Vol. III., Part I., 

Sec. II. (Klein.).. * Svo, 

Weisbach's Steam Engines. (Du Bois.) Svo, 

Wood's Analytical Mechanics .Svo, 

" Elementary Mechanics 12mo, 

" " " Supplement and Key 12mo, 

METALLURGY. 

Allen's Tables for Iron Analysis 8vo, 

Egleston's Gold and Mercury Large 8vo, 

" Metallurgy of Silver Large 8vo, 

* KeiTs Metallurgy— Steel, Fuel, etc 8vo, 

Kunhardt's Ore Dressing in Europe 8vo, 

Metcalf's Steel — A Manual for Steel Users 12mo, 

O'Driscoll's Treatment of Gold Ores Svo, 

Thurston's Iron and Steel Svo, 

" Alloys 8vo, 

Wilson's Cyanide Processes 12mo, 

MINERALOGY AND MINING. 

Barringer's Minerals of Commercial Value Oblong morocco, 2 50 

Beard's Ventilation of Mines 12mo, 2 50 

Boyd's Resources of South Western Virginia Svo, 3 00 

" Map of South Western Virginia Pocket-book form, 2 00 

Brush and Penfield's Determinative Mineralogy. New Ed. Svo, 4 00 

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Chester's Catalogue of Minerals 8vo, 

" " Paper, 

" Dictionary of the Names of Minerals 8vo, 

Dana's American Localities of Minerals I^arge 8vo, 

" Descriptive Mineralogy. (E.S.) Large 8vo. half morocco, 

" First Appendix to System of Mineralogy Large 8vo, 

" Mineralogy and Petrography. (J. D.) 12mo, 

" Minerals and How to Study Them. (E. S.) 12mo, 

" Text-book of Mineralogy. (E. S.).. .New Edition. 8vo, 

* Drinker's Tunnelling, Explosives, Compounds, and Rock Drills. 

4to, half morocco, 

Egleston's Catalogue of Minerals and Synonyms 8vo, 

Eissler's Explosives — Nitroglycerine and Dynamite 8vo, 

Hussak's Rock- forming Minerals. (Smith.) Small 8vo, 

Ihlseng's Manual of Mining. . 8vo, 

Kunhardt's Ore Dressing in Europe « 8vo, 

O'Driscoll's Treatment of Gold Ores 8vo, 

* Penfield's Record of Mineral Tests Paper, 8vo, 

Rosenbusch's Microscopical Physiography of Minerals and 

Rocks. (Iddings.) 8vo, 

Sawyer's Accidents in Mines Large 8vo, 

Stockbridge's Rocks and Soils 8vo, 

^Tillman's Important Minerals and Rocks 8vo, 

Walke's Lectures on Explosives r 8vo, 

Williams's Lithology 8vo, 

Wilson's Mine Ventilation 12mo, 

" Hydraulic and Placer Mining » . . 12mo, 2 50 

STEAM AND ELECTRICAL ENGINES, BOILERS, Etc. 

(See also Engineering, p. 7.) 

Baldwin's Steam Heating for Buildings 12mo, 2 50 

Clerk's Gas Engine t Small 8vo, 4 00 

Ford's Boiler Making for Boiler Makers 18mo, 1 00 

Hemenway's Indicator Practice 12mo, 2 00 

Kent's Steam-boiler Economy , .. .. 8vo, 4 00 

Kneass's Practice and Theory of the Injector 8vo, 1 50 

MacCord's Slide Yaive 8yo, 2 00 

Meyer's Modern Locomotive Construction 4to, 10 00 

Peabody and Miller's Steam-boilers 8vo, 4 00 

Peabody's Tables of Saturated Steam 8vo, 1 00 

" Thermodynamics of the Steam Engine.. 8vo, 5 00 

" Yalve Gears for the Steam Engine 8vo, 2 50 

'* Manual of the Steam-engine Indicator 12mo, 1 50 

Pray's Twenty Years with the Indicator Large 8vo, 2 50 

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Pupin and Osterberg's Thermodynamics 12mo, $1 25 

Reagan's Steam and Electric Locomotives 12mo, 2 00 

Rontgen's Thermodynamics. (Du Bois. ) Svo, 5 00 

Sinclair's Locomotive Running 12mo, 2 00 

Snow's Steam-boiler Practice Svo. 3 00 

Thurston's Boiler Explosions 12mo, 1 50 

Engine and Boiler Trials Svo, 5 00 

" Manual of the Steam Engine. Part I., Structure 

and Theory. . . Svo, 6 00 

" Manual of the Steam Engine. Part II., Design, 

Construction, and Operation Svo, 

2 parts, 

" Philosophy of the Steam Engine 12mo, 

" Reflection on the Motive Power of Heat. (Carnot.) 

12mo, 

Stationary Steam Engines Svo, 

" Steam-boiler Construction and Operation Svo, 

Spangler's Yalve Gears Svo, 

4 ' Xotes on Thermodynamics 12mo, 

Weisbach's Steam Engine.. (Du Bois.) Svo, 

Whitham's Steam-engine Design. . f .„ 8vo, 

Wilson's Steam Boilers. (Flather. ) 12mo, 

"Wood's Thermodynamics, Heat Motors, etc .Svo, 

TABLES, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES. 

Adriance's Laboratory Calculations 12mo ; 

Allen's Tables for Iron Analysis , . .Svo 

Bixby's Graphical Computing Tables Sheet 

Compton's Logarithms 12mo ; 

Crandall's Railway and Earthwork Tables 8vo 

Davis's Elevation and Stadia Tables Small Svo 

Fisher's Table of Cubic Yards Cardboard 

Hudson's Excavation Tables. Vol. II 8vo 

Johnson's Stadia and Earthwork Tables Svo 

Ludlow's Logarithmic and Other Tables. (Bass.) 12mo 

Totten's Metrology 8vo 

VENTILATION. 

Baldwin's Steam Heating 12mo, 2 50 

Beard's Ventilation of Mines. 12mo, 2 50 

Carpenter's Heating and Ventilating of Buildings 8vo, 3 00 

Gerhard's Sanitary House Inspection 12mo, 1 00 

Wilson's Mine Ventilation 12mo, 1 25 

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MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS. 

Alcott's Gems, Sentiment, Language Gilt edges, $5 00 

Emmon's Geological Guide-book of the Rocky Mountains. .8vo, 1 50 

Ferrel' s Treatise on the Winds 8vo, 4 00 

Haines's Addresses Delivered before the Am. Ry. Assn. ..12mo, 2 50 

Mott's The Fallacy of the Present Theory of Sound. .Sq. ltinio, 1 00 

Richards's Cost of Living 12mo, 1 00 

Ricketts's History of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute 8vo, 3 00 

Rotherham's The New Testament Critically Emphasized. 

12mo, 1 50 
" The Emphasized New Test. A new translation. 

Large 8vo, 2 00 

Totten's An Important Question in Metrology 8vo, 2 50 

HEBREW AND CHALDEE TEXT=BOOKS. 

For Schools and Theological Seminaries. 

Gesenius's Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon to Old Testament. 

(Tregelles. ) Small 4to, half morocco, 5 00 

Green's Elementary Hebrew Grammar 12m o, 1 25 

" Grammar of the Hebrew Language (New Edition ).8vo, 3 00 

" Hebrew Chrestomathy 8vo, 2 00 

Letteris's Hebrew Bible (Massoretic Notes in English). 

8vo, arabesque, 2 25 

MEDICAL. 

Hammarsten's Physiological Chemistry. (Mandel.) 8vo, 4 00 

Mott's Composition, Digestibility, and Nutritive Value of Food. 

Large mounted chart, 1 25 

Ruddiman's Incompatibilities in Prescriptions .8vo, 2 00 

Steel's Treatise on the Diseases of the Dog 8vo, 3 50 

Woodhull's Military Hygiene , 16mo, 1 50 

Worcester's Small Hospitals — Establishment and Maintenance, 
including Atkinson's Suggestions for Hospital Archi- 
tecture 12mo, 1 25 

16 



OCT 16 1901 




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